pi 


■r  'yMl. 


I 


PRINCETON,    N.    J. 


% 


.£**#■. 


Division. 
Section  . 
Number., 


.B.L 


>Y&: 


■ 


m 


■ 


■ 


B 


m 

■ 

1  ■ 

./''££ 

• 

^^^■^'•■'r^^-2--   '      ■ 

m%$ 

tf&k$  K*">   -;•«••.- 

"«5!       EOw                   -•< 

gS^ 

HSrS 

'  *«)$   '  ^H 

■ 

fBffl^ 

V.  1 

^H 

THE 

RELIGIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 

THE    ORIGIN    OP    NATIONS. 
In    Two    Parts : 

I.  Early    Civilizations. 
II.  Ethnic  Affinities. 
With  Maps.     1  Vol.  12mo.     Cloth,.     .     .    $1.00 


mm 


■^fe^siP^g 


Mmm^m. 


1 


THE  RELIGIONS 


OF 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD, 


EGYPT,  PHOENICIA, 

ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA,  ETRURIA, 

PERSIA,  GREECE, 

INDIA,  ROME. 


BY 

GEORGE   RAWLINSON,   M.  A., 

CAMDEN   PROFESSOR  OF  ANCIENT   HISTORY,   OXFORD, 
AND   CANON  OF  CANTERBURY  J 

Author  of  "  The  Origin  of  Nations,'"  "  The  Five  Great  Monarchies"  etc. 


NEW  YORK 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 

1883 


[All  Rights  Reserved.] 


GRANT,    FAIRES    &    RODGERS,    PRINTERS 
52    <g    54    NORTH    SIXTH    STREET 
PHILADELPHIA 


PRIHCI 

theqlog:    -ixj 

PREFACE. 

This  little  work  has  originated  in  a  series  of  papers 
written  for  the  Sunday  at  Home  in  the  years  1879  and 
1881,  based  upon  Lectures  delivered  in  the  University 
of  Oxford,  from  the  chair  which  I  have  the  honour  to 
hold.  During  the  twenty-one  years  that  I  have  occu- 
pied that  chair,  I  have  continually  felt  more  and  more 
that  the  real  history  of  nations  is  bound  up  with  the 
history  of  their  religions,  and  that,  unless  these  are  care- 
fully studied  and  accurately  known,  the  inner  life  of 
nations  is  not  apprehended,  nor  is  their  history  under- 
stood. 

I  have  also  felt  that  the  desire  to  generalize  upon  the 
subject  of  ancient  religions,  and  to  build  up  a  formal 
"Science  of  Religion,"  as  it  is  called,  has  outrun  the 
necessarily  anterior  collection  of  materials  on  which 
generalization  might  be  safely  based.  I  have,  therefore, 
in  my  lectures  to  students,  made  a  point  of  drawing 
their  attention,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  religious  beliefs 
and  practices  of  the  various  races  and  nations  with 
whom  my  historical  teaching  has  been  concerned,  and  of 
exhibiting  to  them,  as  well  as  I  was  able,  at  once  the 
external  features  and  the  internal  characteristics  of 
"  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World." 

But  the  voice  of  a  Professor,  speaking  ex  cathedrd 
rarely  reaches  far,  nor  do  modern  academical  reforms 

vii 


viii  Preface. 

tend  in  the  direction  of  enlarging  professorial  influence 
within  Universities.  It  thus  becomes  necessary  for  Pro- 
fessors, if  they  wish  to  advance  the  studies  in  which 
they  feel  especial  interest,  to  address  the  world  without 
through  the  Press,  and  this  I  have  accordingly  done 
from  time  to  time,  and  shall  probably  continue  to  do, 
while  life  and  strength  are  granted  to  me. 

Of  the  shortcomings  of  the  present  work  no  one  can 
be  more  conscious  than  its  author.  I  have  represented 
myself  towards  its  close  (p.  239)  as  having  done  no  more 
than  touched  the  fringe  of  a  great  subject.  Should  cir- 
cumstances permit,  and  sufficient  encouragement  be  re- 
ceived, the  sketch  of  Ancient  Religions  here  put  forth 
may  not  improbably  receive  at  some  future  time  such  an 
expansion  as  may  render  it  more  proportionate  to  the 
vast  matter  of  which  it  treats. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  acknowledgments  to  all  those 
whose  works  I  have  consulted  with  advantage.  But  my 
obligations  to  Professor  Max  Miiller's  dissertations  upon 
the  Vedas,  to  Dr.  Martin  Haug's  "  Essays  on  the  Parsee 
Religion,"  and  to  Mr.  Dennis's  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries 
of  Etruria"  seem  to  require  special  recognition.  Apart 
from  the  works  of  these  writers,  three  of  the  "  Religions" 
could  not  have  been  so  much  as  attempted.  If  I  have 
ventured  sometimes,  though  rarely,  to  differ  from  their 
conclusions,  it  has  been  with  diffidence  and  reluctance. 


3SQL0GIG&] 
CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Present  fashion  of  speculating  on  the  origin  of  things — 
The  aim  of  this  work  to  collect  facts,  not  to  construct 
a  "Science  of  Religion" — Religion  one  of  the  most 
instructive  and  interesting  branches  of  historical 
study — These  pages  deal  with  the  religious  tenets  and 
practices  of  the  eight  principal  nations  of  antiquity — 
The  religion  of  the  Jews  purposely  omitted    .     .    page 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

Polytheism  existed  in  three  forms:  1,  Synthetic;  2,  Ana- 
lytic ;  3,  Mixed — Egyptian  polytheism  of  the  last- 
named  kind — Early  classification  of  the  gods— The  prin- 
cipal divinities  -  Ammon — Khem  — Kneph — Phthah — 
Ra — Osiris — Neith  or  Net — Worship  of  the  sun  and 
moon — Malevolent  deities — Local  triads  —Animal  wor- 
ship— The  Apis  bulls — Temples  and  ceremonies — Be- 
lief in  a  future  life — Treatment  of  the  dead — Egyptian 
"  natural  theology  " — No  ground  for  supposing  Egyp- 
tians acquainted  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  .    .    . 

ix 


x  Contents. 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 

Assyrians  believed  in  fewer  gods,  and  worshipped  the 
heavenly  bodies  more  than  the  Egyptians— Had  no 
esoteric  religion — An  account  of  their  religion  is  hence 
a  description  of  their  pantheon — Asshur  and  II  or  Ra — 
The  first  triad,  Anu,  Bel  and  Ilea  or  Hoa— The  second 
triad,  Sin,  Shamas,  and  Vul  —  The  six  goddesses, 
Anata,  Beltis,  Dav-kina,  Gula,  Shala  or  Tala,  and 
"the  Great  Lady" — The  five  astral  deities — The  As- 
syrian Nin — The  Babylonian  Merodach  —  Nergal — 
Ishtar — Nebo — Religious  buildings  of  the  Assyrians — 
Their  ritual — Their  view  of  a  future  life— Their  super- 
stitions— Their  sacred  legends — The  Chaldean  legend 
of  creation  as  given  by  Berosus  and  the  monuments — 
The  Chaldean  legend  of  the  Deluge — The  descent  of 
Ishtar  into   Hades page       85 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians. 

Early  home  of  the  Iranians — The  origin  of  their  religion 
anterior  to  the  birth  of  Moses — Zoroaster,  its  founder — 
Persia  its  abiding  home — The  Zendavesta — Dualism  the 
great  characteristic — Ahura-Mazda  and  Angro-Mainyus 
Signification  of  these  names — Attributes  of  the  two 
deities — Their  respective  bands  of  inferior  spirits — The 
Amcsha-Spentas — The  spirits  subordinate  to  Angro- 
Mainyus — The  symbol  of  the  winged  circle — Mithra, 
the  genius  of  light— Man  created  by  Ahura-Mazda  ; 
bound  to  obey  him,  and  oppose  Angro-Mainyus — The 
purity  of  the  Iranians — Their  industry — Veracity — 
Views  on  a  future  life — Belief  in  a  resurrection  of  the 
body  not  found  in  earlier  parts  of  Zendavesta — Trans- 
lation of  a  Gatlni  ascribed  to  Zoroaster — A  specimen 
from  the  Yasna  or  Book  on  Sacrifice — Introduction  of 


Contents.  xi 

Magism,  or  worship  of  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water — 
The  Magian  priesthood — Their  strange  treatment  of 
the  dead — Nature  of  the  late  and  mixed  religion  .  page      77 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians. 

Early  Indians  polytheistic — Traditions  point  to  an  early 
condition  of  extreme  hardship,  in  which  the  belief  in 
one  God  may  have  been  generally  lost — The  religious 
instinct  in  the  Hindoos  manufactured  deities — Growth 
of  Vedic  polytheism — The  chief  deities,  Varuna,  Mitra, 
and  Indra— Agni,  the  god  of  fire — Dyaus  and  the  other 
nature-gods — Ushas,  the  dawn — Surya,  the  sun — Vayu, 
the  wind — Dyaus  and  Prithivi — Soma  worshipped  as 
the  moon,  and  also  as  the  genius  of  a  certain  plant — 
Indian  worship  simple  in  form — Their  hymns — Their 
offerings — Their  views  on  the  future  life — Immortality 
as  hinted  at  by  Vedic  poets — Speculations  on  the  deeper 
problems  of  human  and  divine  existence — Translation 
of  a  Vedic  poem 105 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians. 

Our  knowledge  on  this  subject  has  to  be  gleaned  from 
few  and  scattered  notices — The  Phoenician  a  narrow 
polytheism — The  names  of  the  gods  indicate  a  know- 
ledge of  the  personality  of  the  Supreme  Being — They 
point  to  an  original  monotheism — The  female  deities 
mere  modes  of  the  male  ones — Baal — Ashtoreth — 
Melkarth — Dagon — Adonis  or  Tammuz — El — The  sun- 
worship — Shamas — Molech — Baaltis — Sadyk — Eshmun 
— The  Kabiri — Foreign  deities — Licentious  rites — Hu- 
man sacrifice — No  images  in  the  temples — Asherahs — 
General  tendency  of  the  worship  to  lower  and  debase 
men 130 


xii  Contents. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans. 

Known  to  us  chiefly  from  references  in  Greek  and  Latin 
writers — Etruscan  languages  not  yet  mastered — Re- 
ligion held  a  leading  place  in  the  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings of  the  nation— Twofold  objects  of  worship,  deities 
and  Lares — Three  classes  of  deities,  of  heaven,  of 
earth,  and  of  the  infernal  regions — Chief  deities  of 
Heaven— Tina  or  Tinia — Cupra — Menrva  or  Menrfa — 
Usil  and  Losna — The  three  elemental  gods  — The 
Novensiles — The  prominent  place  assigned  to  the  gods 
of  the  infernal  regions — Mantus,  Mania,  and  Charun — 
Attributes  of  these  deities  and  their  attendants — 
Etruscans  sought  to  learn  the  will  of  the  gods  in  three 
ways :  1,  by  thunder  and  lightning;  2,  by  the  flight  of 
birds;  and  3,  by  the  inspection  of  entrails— The 
priesthood  a  race  of  soothsayers — Sacrifices  were  both 
animal  and  human — The  true  temple  was  the  home, 
the  real  object  of  worship  the  Lares — Etruscan  tombs — 
The  Etruscan  a  depressing,  superstitious,  and  debasing 
worship page     159 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks. 

In  what  sense  a  worship  of  Nature — Multitudinous  charac- 
ter of  the  polytheism — Classes  of  gods — Gradations  in 
rank  and  power — The  six  gods  of  the  first  order :  Zeus — 
Poseidon  —  Apollo  —  Ares — Hephaestus — Hermes — The 
six  female  Olympic  deities :  Hera,  Athene\  Artemi9, 
Aphrodite,  Hestia,  Demeter — Worship  of  Dionysus — 
Leto — Persephone — Characteristics  of  Greek  worship — 
The  festivals — The  dark  side— The  Furies— Human 
sacrifice— The  "  mysteries" 176 


Contents.  xiii 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans. 

The  Roman  quite  distinct  from  the  Greek  religion — The 
twelve  Dimajores:  Jupiter — Juno — Minerva — Mars — 
Bellona — Vesta — Ceres — Saturnus—  Ops —  Hercules — 
Mercurius  —  Neptunus  —  Five  groups  of  subordinate 
deities — The  worship  supported  by  the  State — Several 
orders  of  priests — The  three  chief  collegia :  1,  Salii 
Palatini ;  2,  Salii  Collini ;  and  3,  Virgines  Vesfales — 
The  learned  corporations:  1,  the  Pontifices ;  2,  the 
Augurs ;  3,  the  Fetials ;  4,  the  Duumviri  sacrorum — 
The  public  worship  of  the  State — The  private  worship 
of  the  people — Roman  religion  dull  and  tame,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Greek— Doctrines  of  expiation — Mytho- 
logical fables  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  the  Romans   page    213 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

The  time  has  not  yet  come  to  construct  a  "Science  of  Re- 
ligion," but  certain  results  seem  to  follow  from  this 
review,  viz. : — 1.  It  is  impossible  to  trace  to  any  one 
fundamental  conception  the  various  religions. — 2. 
From  none  of  them  could  the  Hebrew  religion  have 
originated — 3.  The  sacred  books  of  the  Hebrews  could 
not  possibly  have  been  derived  from  the  sacred  writings 
of  these  nations — 4.  This  review  gives  no  counte- 
nance to  the  theory  of  Comte— 5.  The  facts  point  to  a 
primitive  religion,  of  which  monotheism  and  expiatory 
sacrifice  were  parts,  gradually  corrupted  and  lost  ex- 
cept among  the  Hebrews page     240 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Obelisk  of  Usurtasen  at  Heliopolis       .        .  (Frontispiece) 

Ammon 11 

Phthah 13 

Ra 14 

Thoth 17 

Triad  of  Savak-Ra,  Athor,  and  Khons  ....  19 

The  Judgment  Hall  of  Osiris 25 

Mummy  and  Disembodied  Spirit 27 

Asshur 40 

Sin             47 

Vul             50 

NlN              52 

Neegal             56 

Winged  Circle 86 

Four-winged  figure  at  Murgab 87 

Tomb  of  Darius      .........  89 

Fire  Altars 97 

Magian  Priest 100 

ASTARTE                139 

The  Sun          145 

Coin  of  Cossura    .       .       , 150 

Coin  of  Gaulos 151 

Sacred  Tree— Asheeah 157 


THE  EELIGIONS 


OF 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


INTRODUCTION. 

"Religio  est,  quae  superioris  cujusdam,  natural,  quam  Divinam 
vocant,  curam  cierimoniainque  affert." — Cic.  De  Inventione,  ii. 
53. 

IT  is  the  fashion  of  the  day  to  speculate  on  the 
origins  of  things.  Not  content  with  observing 
the  mechanism  of  the  heavens,  astronomers  discuss 
the  formation  of  the  material  universe,  and  seek  in 
the  phenomena  which  constitute  the  subject-matter 
of  their  science  for  "  Vestiges  of  Creation."  Natural 
philosophers  propound  theories  of  the  a  Origin  of 
Species,"  and  the  primitive  condition  of  man.  Com- 
parative philologists  are  no  longer  satisfied  to  dissect 
languages,  compare  roots,  or  contrast  systems  of 
grammar,  but  regard  it  as  incumbent  upon  them  to 
put  forward  views  respecting  the  first  beginnings  of 
language  itself. 

To  deal  with  facts  is  thought  to  be  a  humdrum 

1 


2  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient   World. 

and  commonplace  employment  of  the  intellect,  one 
fitted  for  the  dull  ages  when  men  were  content  to 
plod,  and  when  progress,  development,  "  the  higher 
criticism"  were  unknown.  The  intellect  now  takes 
loftier  flights.  Conjecture  is  found  to  be  more 
amusing  than  induction,  and  an  ingenious  hypothesis 
to  be  more  attractive  than  a  proved  law.  Our  "  ad- 
vanced thinkers "  advance  to  the  furthest  limits  of 
human  knowledge,  sometimes  even  beyond  them; 
and  bewitch  us  with  speculations,  which  are  as  beau- 
tiful, and  as  unsubstantial,  as  the  bubbles  which  a 
child  produces  with  a  little  soap  and  water  and  a 
tobacco-pipe. 

Nor  does  even  religion  escape.  The  historical 
method  of  inquiry  into  the  past  facts  of  religion  is  in 
danger  of  being  superseded  by  speculations  concern- 
ing what  is  called  its  "  philosophy,"  or  its  "  science." 
We  are  continually  invited  to  accept  the  views  of 
this  or  that  theorist  respecting  the  origin  of  all  reli- 
gions, wmich  are  attributed  either  to  a  common  in- 
nate idea  or  instinct,  or  else  to  a  common  mode  of 
reasoning  upon  the  phenomena  and  experiences  of 
human  life.  While  the  facts  of  ancient  religions  are 
only  just  emerging  from  the  profound  obscurity  that 
has  hitherto  rested  upon  them,  fancy  is  busy  con- 
structing schemes  and  systems,  which  have  about  as 
much  reality  as  the  imaginations  of  a  novelist  or  the 
day-dreams  of  an  Alnaschar.  The  patient  toil,  the 
careful  investigation  which  real  Science  requires  as 
the  necessary  basis  upon  which  generalisation  must 
proceed,  and  systems  be   built  up,  is  discarded  for 


Introduction.  3 

the  "short  and  easy  method"  of  jumping  to  conclu- 
sions and  laying  down  as  certainties  what  are,  at  the 
best,  "guesses  at  truth." 

It  is  not  the  aim  of  the  present  writer  to  produce 
a  "  Science  of  Religion,"  or  even  to  speculate  on  the 
possibility  of  such  a  science  being  ultimately  elabo- 
rated when  all  the  facts  are  fully  known.  He  has 
set  himself  a  more  prosaic  and  less  ambitious  task — 
that,  namely,  of  collecting  materials  which  may  serve 
as  a  portion  of  the  data,  when  the  time  comes,  if  it 
ever  comes,  for  the  construction  of  the  science  in 
question.  A  building  cannot  be  erected  without 
materials ;  a  true  science  cannot  be  constructed  with- 
out ample  data. 

Careful  inquiries  into  the  real  nature  of  historical 
religions  are  necessary  preliminaries  to  the  formation 
of  any  general  theories  on  the  subject  of  religion 
worth  the  paper  upon  which  they  are  written.  And 
such  inquiries  have,  moreover,  a  value  in  themselves. 
"The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man;"  and  the 
past  history  of  the  human  race  possesses  an  undying 
interest  for  the  greater  portion  of  educated  human 
kind.  Of  that  past  history  there  is  no  branch  more 
instructive,  and  few  more  entertaining,  than  that 
which  deals  with  religious  beliefs,  opinions,  and  prac- 
tices. Religion  is  the  most  important  element  in 
the  thought  of  a  nation ;  and  it  is  by  studying  their 
religions  that  we  obtain  the  best  clue  to  the  inner 
life  and  true  character  of  the  various  peoples  who 
have  played  an  important  part  in  the  drama  of 
human  affairs. 


4  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

In  the  ensuing  pages  the  religious  tenets  and  prac- 
tices of  eight  principal  nations  of  antiquity  are  passed 
in  review — the  nations  being  those  with  which  an- 
cient history  is  chiefly  concerned — the  Egyptians, 
Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  Iranians,  Sanskritic  In- 
dians, Phoenicians,  Etruscans,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 

The  religion  of  the  Jews  has  been  omitted,  as  suf- 
ficiently well  known  to  all  educated  persons.  The 
religions  of  ancient  barbarous  races  have  been  exclu- 
ded, as  not  having  come  down  to  us  in  any  detail,  or 
upon  sufficiently  trustworthy  evidence.  The  eight 
nations  selected  have,  on  the  contrary,  left  monu- 
ments and  writings,  more  or  less  extensive,  from 
which  it  has  seemed  to  be  possible  to  give  a  tolerably 
full  account  of  their  religious  beliefs,  and  one  on 
which  a  fair  degree  of  dependence  may  be  placed. 
No  doubt,  as  time  goes  on,  and  fresh  discoveries  are 
made  of  ancient  documents,  or  an  increased  insight 
obtained  into  the  true  meaning  of  their  contents,  we 
shall  come  to  know  much  more  than  we  know  at 
present  on  the  subject  here  handled;  but  it  is  confi- 
dently believed  that  further  research  and  study  will 
only  supplement,  and  not  contradict,  the  views  which 
are  here  put  forward.  The  author  will  gladly  see 
the  sketch  which  he  here  attempts  filled  up  and 
completed  by  others.  A6z$tsv  dv  Travzbz  ecvac 
TTpoayaysTv  xai  diapOpcooai  rd  xaXd>z  i%opra  vj} 
7isf>tYpa<pr),  xal  6  ypbvoq,  rcov  toioutojv  supers,  7] 
oovspybz  clyadbr:  elvat.  odzv  xal  rwv  rsyvwv  yzybvaoiv 
£7:id6<7£ic  Tiavxbz  yap  -poadeTvac  to  ekhlrcov. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   RELIGION   OF   THE   ANCIENT   EGYPTIANS. 

AlyvirriOL     .     .     .     fleocufteeg  irsptoc&c  eovreg  fidHara  iravTiov 
av8po)Trwv. — Herod,  ii.  37. 

rilHE  religions  of  the  ancient  world,  if  we  ex- 
-*-  cept  Judaism,  seem  to  have  been,  all  of  them, 
more  or  less  polytheistic ;  but  the  polytheism  grew 
up  in  different  ways,  was  carried  out  to  very  different 
lengths,  and  proceeded  upon  considerably  varying 
principles.  In  some  places  natural  objects  and  opera- 
tions appear  to  have  presented  themselves  to  the  un- 
sophisticated mind  of  man  as  mysterious,  wonderful, 
divine ;  and  light,  fire,  the  air,  the  sun,  the  moon, 
the  dawn,  the  cloud,  the  stream,  the  storm,  the  light- 
ning, drew  his  attention  separately  and  distinctly, 
each  having  qualities  at  which  he  marvelled,  each,  as 
he  thought,  instinct  with  life,  and  each,  therefore, 
regarded  as  a  Power,  a  Being — the  natural  and 
proper  object  of  worship  and  reverence.  Elsewhere, 
men  seem  to  have  begun  with  a  dim  and  faint  ap- 
preciation of  a  single  mysterious  power  in  the  world 
without  them,  and  to  have  gradually  divided  this 
power  up  into  its  various  manifestations,  which  by 
degrees  became  separate  and  distinct  beings.     The 

5 


6  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

process  in  this  case  might  stop  short  after  a  few  steps 
had  been  taken,  or  it  might  be  carried  on  almost  in- 
terminably, until  a  pantheon  had  been  formed  in 
which  the  mind  lost  itself. 

Where  the  polytheism  grew  up  out  of  an  analysis, 
the  principle  of  the  division  might  be  either  physical 
or  metaphysical ;  a  separation  of  nature  into  its  parts, 
or  an  analysis  of  the  Being  presiding  over  nature  in- 
to his  various  powers  and  attributes.  Or  these  two 
processes  might  be  combined  and  intermixed,  the 
pantheon  being  thus  still  further  enlarged  at  the  ex- 
pense of  some  confusion  of  thought  and  complexity 
of  arrangement.  Again,  occasionally,  there  was  a 
further  enlargement  and  complication,  in  consequence 
of  the  desire  to  embrace  in  one  system  analyses  which 
were  really  distinct,  or  to  comprise  in  a  single  national 
religion  local  diversities  of  arrangement  or  nomen- 
clature, or  even  to  admit  into  a  system  based  on  one 
principle  elements  which  belonged  properly  to  systems 
based  upon  others.  The  whole  result  in  such  a  case 
was  one  of  extensive  complexity,  and  even  contra- 
diction ;  a  tangle  was  produced  which  it  was  scarcely 
possible  to  unravel.  The  system,  however,  gained  in 
richness  and  variety  what  it  lost  in  logical  sequence 
and  intelligibility,  and  continued  to  have  a  firm  hold 
on  the  minds  of  many  when  religions  of  greater  in- 
ternal consistency  had  lost  their  power. 

The  Egyptian  polytheism  was  of  the  character  last 
described.  Its  most  striking  characteristics  were  its 
multitudinousness,  its  complexity,  and  the  connection 
of  this  latter  feature  with  early  local  diversities  in 


TJie  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  7 

the  names  and  offices  of  the  gods.  Wilkinson,  who 
does  not  profess  to  exhaust  the  subject,  enumerates 
seventy-three  divinities,  and  gives  their  several  names 
and  forms.1  Birch  has  a  list  of  sixty-three  "princi- 
pal deities," 2  and  notes  that  "  others  personified  the 
elements,  or  presided  over  the  operations  of  nature, 
the  seasons,  and  events."3  It  is  not,  perhaps,  too 
much  to  say,  that  the  Egyptian  pantheon  in  its  final 
form  comprised  some  hundreds  of  gods  and  goddes- 
ses,4 each  known  under  a  different  name,  and  each 
discharging  more  or  less  peculiar  functions.  We 
say,  "each  discharging  more  or  less  peculiar  func- 
tions," since  some  deities  were  so  nearly  alike,  came 
so  close  the  one  to  the  other,  that  their  identity  or 
diversity  is  a  moot  point,  still  disputed  among 
Egyptologists.  In  other  cases  the  diversity  is 
greater,  yet  still  the  features  possessed  in  common 
are  so  numerous  that  the  gods  can  scarcely  be  con- 
sidered wholly  distinct,  and,  indeed,  are  not  unfre- 
quently  confounded  together  and  blended  into  -a 
single  personage.  We  hear  of  Amen-Ra,  Amen- 
Kneph,  Ra-Harmachis,  Isis-Selk,  Phthah-Sokari- 
Osiris,  and  the  like.     There  is  reason  to  believe  that 

i  "  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,"  vols.  iv. 
and  v.     For  the  forms,  see  his  "  Supplement,"  plates  21  to  72. 

2  See  his  "  Dictionary  of  Hieroglyphics  "  in  Bunsen's  "  Egypt," 
vol.  v.  pp.  581-583. 

3  "  Guide  to  the  British  Museum,"  p.  4. 

4 An  inscription  of  Rameses  n.  speaks  of  "the  thousand  gods, 
the  gods  male,  the  gods  female,  those  which  are  of  the  land  of 
Egypt"  ("  Records  of  the  Past,"  voL  iv.  p.  31) ;  but  this  phrase 
is  no  doubt  rhetorical. 


8  TJie  Religions  <>f  the  Ancient  World. 

a  main  cause  of  this  multiplication  of  deities,  nearly 
or  quite  the  same,  which  at  first  sight  seems  so  strange 
and  unaccountable,  is  to  be  found  in  the  originally 
local  character  of  many  of  the  gods,  and  the  subse- 
quent admission  of  .purely  provincial  deities  into  the 
general  pantheon. 

With  a  view  to  educe  order  out  of  this  multitudi- 
nous confusion,  attempts  were  made  by  the  Greeks, 
and  perhaps  by  some  of  the  later  Egyptians  them- 
selves, to  classify  the  deities,  and  divide  them  into 
certain  ranks  or  orders,  each  of  which  should  com- 
prise a  certain  definite  number.  Herodotus  speaks 
of  a  first,  a  second,  and  a  third  order,1  and  assigns 
positively  to  the  first  order  eight,  and  to  the  second 
twelve  gods,  leaving  the  third  rank  indeterminate. 
Some  traces  of  a  similar  classification  are  found  in 
some  of  the  native  writers;2  and  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  a  distinction  of  ranks  was  recognized ; 
but  when  an  endeavor  is  made  to  specify  the  gods  of 
each  rank,  insurmountable  difficulties  present  them- 
selves. It  seems  clear  that  even  the  first  eight  gods 
were  not  established  by  the  general  consent  of  the 
nation  in  all  parts  of  Egypt,  and  probable  that  in 
one  and  the  same  place  they  w^ere  not  always  the 
same  at  different  periods.  According  to  what  seems 
the  earliest  tradition,  the  eight  names  were  those  of 
Phthah,  Ra,  Shu  (or  Kneph),3  Seb,  Osiris,  Isis,  Set, 

i  Herod,  ii.  43. 

2  As  Manetho  (ap.  Euseb.  "Chron.  Can."  i.  19). 

3  The  name  given  is  Agathodaemon,  who  is  thought  to  represent 
one  or  other  of  these  gods. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  9 

and  Horus;  according  to  the  latest  researches,  they 
were,  at  Memphis,  Phthah,  Shu,  Tefhu,  Seb,  Ku  (or 
Nut),  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Athor ;  while  at  Thebes  they 
were  Amnion,  Mentu,  Turn  (or  A  turn),  Shu,  Seb, 
Osiris,  Set,  and  Horus.1  Others  have  thought  to 
find  them  in  Amnion,  Khem,  Maut,  Kneph,  Sati, 
Phthah,  Neith,  and  Pa,2  or  in  this  list  with  a  single 
change — that  of  the  last  name,  for  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  substitute  that  of  Bast  or  Pasht.3  It  is 
evident  that,  while  the  chief  authorities  are  thus  at 
variance,  no  certain  list  of  even  the  eight  great  gods 
can  be  put  forward. 

The  twelve  gods  of  the  second  order  are  still  more 
indeterminate.  Two  lists  have  been  formulated,  one 
by  Sir  G.  Wilkinson,  and  the  other  by  the  late  Baron 
Bunsen,  but  each  includes  three  deities  which  are 
excluded  by  the  other.4     The  formation  of  such  lists 


1See  Birch's  "Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  B.C.  300," 
"Introduction,"  pp.  x.  xi.,  and  compare  "Guide  to  the  British 
Museum,"  p.  12. 

»1.  i.  pp. 

284-286 


2  Bunsen' s    ' 

'Egypt's   Place 

in  Ancient 

History,"  vo 

366-367. 

3  Wilkinson, 

in  Rawlinson's  ' 

1  Herodotus,' 

'  vol.  ii.  pp. 

(32nd  edition) 

4  Bunsen' s  list  consists  of — 

Chons 

*Bast 

*Ma 

Savak 

Thoth 

*Athor 

Tafne 

Seb 

Turn 

Shu 

Mentu 

Netpe ; 

Wilkinson's 

of— 

*Ra 

Khons 

Shu 

Savak 

Seb 

*Anouke 

Tafne' 

*Seneb 

Netpe 

Turn 

Thoth 

Mentu 

The  peculiar  names  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 


10  TJie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

is  mere  guess-work ;  and  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn 
from  the  attempts  made  is  that,  while  the  Egyptians 
recognised  a  gradation  of  ranks  among  their  deities, 
and  assigned  to  some  a  position  of  decided  superi- 
ority, to  others  one,  comparatively  speaking,  inferior, 
there  was  no  "hard-and-fast  line"  separating  rank 
from  rank,  or  order  from  order,  nor  was  any  definite 
number  of  divinities  reckoned  in  any  division. 

Still,  we  can  easily  particularise  the  principal  di- 
vinities, the  gods  which  were  the  chief  objects  of 
worship,  either  in  the  main  centres  of  population,  or 
throughout  the  countrv.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  to  this  class  belong  Amnion,  Khem,  Kneph, 
Phthah,  Ra,  Osiris,  and  Keith.  Amnion  was  the 
chief  god  of  Thebes,  Khem  of  Chemmis,  or  Panop- 
olis,  Kneph  of  Elephantine,  Phthah  of  Memphis,  Ra 
of  Heliopolis,  Osiris  of  Abydos  and  Philse,  Neith  of 
Sais.  It  will  perhaps  be  a  better  illustration  of  the 
Egyptian  religion  to  give  a  particular  though  brief 
account  of  these  seven  deities  than  to  waste  pages  in 
generalities. 

Amnion  is  said  to  have  meant,  etymologically, 
"  the  concealed  god ;  "  l  and  the  idea  of  Ammon  was 
that  of  a  recondite,  incomprehensible  divinity,  re- 
mote from  man,  hidden,  mysterious,  the  proper  ob- 
ject of  the  profoundest  reverence.  Practically,  this 
idea  was  too  abstract,  too  high-flown,  too  metaphy- 
sical, for  ordinary  minds  to  conceive  of  it;  and  so 
Ammon  was  at  an  early  date  conjoined  with  Ra,  the 

1  Manetho  ap.  Plutarch,  "De  IsiJ.  ct  Osir."  s.  9;  Iamblich. 
"De  Mysteriis,"  viii.  3. 


Tlie  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         11 


Sun,  and  worshipped  as  Ammon-Ra,1  a  very  intelli- 
gible-god, neither  more  nor  less  than  the  physical  sun, 
the  source  of  light  and  life,  "  the  lord  of  existences 
and  support  of  all  things."  2 
Kheni  was  the  generative 
principle,  the  power  of  life 
and  growth  in  nature.  He 
was  rudely  and  coarsely 
represented  as  a  mummied 
figure,  with  phallus  in  front, 
and  forms  an  unsightly  ob- 
ject in  the  sculptures.  He 
presided  primarily  over  the 
vegetable  world,  and  was  the 
giver  of  fertility  and  increase, 
the  lord  of  the  harvest,  and 
the  patron  of  agriculture. 
But  the  human  species  and 
the  various  kinds  of  animals 
were  also  under  his  charge, 
and  from  him  obtained  con- 
tinuance. He  is  called,  "  the  ammon. 
king  of  the  gods,"  "the  lifter 

of  the  hand,"  "  the  lord  of  the  crown,"  "  the  power- 
ful,"3 and  further  bears  the  special  title  of  Kamutf, 
"bull  of  his  mother,"  in  allusion  to  the  relation 
which  he  bore  to  Nature. 

1  See  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  21,  31,  etc. ;  vol.  iv. 
pp.  11,  16,  etc. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  129,  1.  12. 

3  "Records  of  the  Tast,"  vol.  viii.  p.  142. 


12  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Kneph  was  the  divine  spirit  or  soul  considered  as 
forming  the  scheme  of  creation.  His  name  is  by  some 
connected  etymologically  with  the  Egyptian  word 
for  "breath/'1  which  is  nef;  and  curious  analogies 
are  traced  between  him  and  the  third  Person  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  in  the  Christian  system.2  As  "the 
Spirit  of  God  "  at  the  time  of  the  creation  "  moved 
upon  the  face  of  the  waters,"  so  Kneph  is  repre- 
sented as  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  inunda- 
tions. As  the  heavens  were  made  by  the  "  breath 
of  God's  mouth,"  so  Kneph  is  called,  "  the  god  who 
has  made  the  sun  and  moon  to  revolve  under  the 
heaven  and  above  the  world,  and  who  has  made  the 
world  and  all  that  is  in  it." 3  Some  representations 
exhibit  him  as  a  potter  with  his  wheel ;  and  the  in- 
scriptions accompanying  them  assign  to  him  the  for- 
mation of  gods  and  men.  It  is  perhaps  as  a  pro- 
creating principle  that  he  is  figured  commonly  with 
the  head  of  a  ram.  Kneph  was  worshipped  chiefly 
in  Upper  Egypt,  at  Elephantine  and  the  Cataracts ; 
but  he  was  acknowledged  also  at  Thebes,  at  Antaeop- 
olis,  and  elsewhere. 

Phthah,  whom  the  Greeks  identified  with  their 
ITephaistos,  and  the  Romans  with  their  Vulcan,  was 
a  creator  of  a  more  vulgar  type  than  Kneph  or 
Khem.  He  was  an  artisan  god,  the  actual  manipula- 
tor of  matter,  and  direct  maker  of  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  earth.     He  is  called,   "  the  father  of  the  be- 

1  Bunsen,  "Egypt's  Place,"  vol.  i.  p.  375. 

2  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,''  vol.  iv.  p.  236. 

3  Bunsen,  vol.  i.  p.  377. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egypt'u 


13 


PHTHAH. 


ginnings,"  "the  first  of  the  gods  of  the  upper  world," 
"he  who  adjusts  the  world  by  his  hand,"  "the  lord 
of  the  beautiful  countenance,"  and  "the 
lord  of  truth."  l  He 
is  also  defined  by  an 
ancient  writer  2  as 
"  the  god  who  creates 
with  truth."  We  find 
him  represented  un- 
der three  quite  differ- 
ent forms,  as  a  man 
walking  or  sitting,  as 
a  mummied  figure, 
accompanied  by  "the  emblem  of 
stability,"  and  as  a  pigmy  or  dwarf. 
A  figure  of  this  last  description 
provoked  the  ridicule  of  Cambyses, 
the  Persian  conqueror  of  Egypt,  who  "  entered  the 
grand  temple  of  Phthah  at  Memphis,  and  made 
great  sport  of  the  image." 3  Forms  of  Phthah  are 
also  found  consisting  of  two  figures  placed  back  to 
back,  and  even  of  three  figures  placed  at  an  angle. 
These  seem,  however,  to  represent  combinations  of 
Phthah  with  other  nearly  allied  gods,  and  are  called 
commonly  "figures  of  Phthah-Sokari,"  or  of  "Phthah-l 
Sokari-Osiris." 

Ra  was  the  Egyptian  sun-god,  and  was  especially 


PHTHAH. 


1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  viii.  pp.  5-15;  Birch, 
the  British  Museum,"  p.  13. 

2  Iamblichus,  "De  Mysteriis,"  viii.  3. 

3  Herod,  iii.  37. 


Guide  to 


14 


The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 


worshipped  at  Heliopolis.  Obelisks,  according  to 
some,1  represented  his  rays,  and  were  always,  or 
usually,  erected  in  his  honour.  Heliopolis  was  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  places 
which  were  thus  adorned, 
for  one  of  the  few  which 
still  stand  erect  in  Egypt 
is  on  the  site  of  that  city.2 
The  kings  for  the  most 
part  considered  Ra  their 
special  patron  and  protect- 
or ;  nay,  they  went  so  far 
as  to  identify  themselves 
with  him,  to  use  his  titles 
as  their  own,  and  to  adopt 
his  name  as  the  ordinary 
prefix  to  their  own  names 
and  titles.  This  is  believed 
by  many  to  have  been  the 
origin  of  the  word  Pharaoh, 3  which  was,  it  is 
thought,  the  Hebrew  rendering  of  Ph'  Ra  =  "the 
sun."  Ra  is  sometimes  represented  simply  by  a  disk, 
colored  red,  or  by  such  a  disk  with  the  ankh,  or 
symbol  of  life,  attached  to  it ;  but  more  commonly 
he  has  the  figure  of  a  man,  with  a  hawk's  head,  and 
above  it  the  disk,  accompanied  by  plumes,  or  by  a 
serpent.      The   beetle    (scarabseus)    was   one  of  his 

1  Zoega,  "Be  Obeliscis;"  Plin.  "  H.  N."  xxxvi.  8,  s.  14. 

2  See  the  Frontispiece  of  this  book. 

3  So  Wilkinson  (in  Rawlinson's  "Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.  p.  181, 
note  1 )  and  others.  But  the  derivation  from  Ph'ouro,  "  the  king," 
is  perhaps  as  probable. 


RA. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  15 

emblems.  As  for  his  titles,  they  are  too  numerous 
to  mention  :  the  "  Litany  of  Ra " 1  alone  contains 
some  hundreds  of  them. 

Osiris  was  properly  a  form  of  Ra.  He  was  the 
light  of  the  lower  world,  the  sun  from  the  time  that 
he  sinks  below  the  horizon  in  the  west  to  the  hour 
when  he  reappears  above  the  eastern  horizon  in  the 
morning.  This  physical  idea  was,  however,  at  a 
later  date  modified,  and  Osiris  Avas  generally  recog- 
nized as  the  perpetually  presiding  lord  of  the  lower 
world,  the  king  and  the  judge  of  Hades  or  Amenti. 
His  worship  was  universal  throughout  Egypt,2  but 
his  chief  temples  were  at  Abydos  and  Philse.  Ordi- 
narily he  was  represented  in  a  mummied  form  as  the 
god  of  the  dead,  but  sometimes  he  appears  as  a  living 
man,  standing  or  walking.  He  carries  in  his  two 
hands  the  crook  and  the  flagellum  or  whip,  and  com- 
monly wears  on  his  head  the  crown  of  Upper  Egypt, 
with  a  plume  of  ostrich  feather  on  either  side  of  it. 
A  special  character  of  goodness  attaches  to  him.  We 
find  him  called,  "the  manifester  of  good,"  "full  of 
goodness  and  truth,"  "  the  beneficent  spirit,"  "  benefi- 
cent in  will  and  Avords,"  "mild  of  heart,"  "and  fair 
and  beloved  of  all  who  see  him." 3 

Neith,  or  Net,  the  goddess  of  Sais,  was  identified 
by  the  Greeks4  with   their  Athene  (Minerva),  but 

1  See  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  viii.  pp.  105-128. 

2  Herod,  ii.  42,  with  Wilkinson's  note. 

3  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  99-103;  Wilkinson, 
"Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  p.  320. 

*  Plat.  "Tim."  p.  22,  A;  Cic.  "  De  Nat.  Deor."  iii.  p.  248. 


16  Tlie  Religious  of  the  Ancient  World. 

does  not  appear  to  have  been  really  a  goddess  of  wis- 
dom. She  was  the  female  correspondent  of  Khem, 
the  conceptive  element  in  nature,  as  he  was  the  gen- 
erative. Her  titles  are,  "  the  mother,"  "  the  mistress 
of  heaven,"  "  the  elder  goddess."  l  She  is  represented 
in  the  form  of  a  woman  standing,  and  wearing  on  her 
head  the  crown  of  Lower  Egypt.  In  her  left  hand 
she  carries  a  sceptre,  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  bow 
and  two  arrows;  in  her  right  she  bears  the  ankh,  or 
symbol  of  life.  One  of  the  signs  with  which  her  name 
is  written  resembles  a  shuttle;  from  which  fact,  com- 
bined with  her  carrying  a  bow  and  arrows,  she  has 
been  called,  "  the  goddess  of  war  and  weaving." 2  Her 
worship  was  not  very  widely  spread,  nor  is  she  often 
mentioned  in  the  inscriptions. 

No  part  of  the  Egyptian  religion  was  so  much  de- 
veloped and  so  multiplex  as  their  sun  worship.3  Be- 
sides Ra  and  Osiris  there  were  at  least  six  other 
deities  who  had  a  distinctly  solar  character.  These 
were  Shu,  Aten,  Horus  or  Harmachis,  Turn  or  Atum, 
Khepra,  and  Mentu.  Shu  was  the  sun's  light,  Aten 
the  sun's  disk,  Har,  or  Har-em-akhu  (Horus  or  Har- 
machis), the  sun  at  his  rising ;  Turn  (or  Atum)  the 
same  luminary  at  his  setting ;  Khepra  was  the  life- 
giving  power  of  the  sun;  while  Mentu  was  a  provin- 

1  Bunsen,  "Egypt's  Place,"  vol.  i.  p.  386;  Wilkinson,  "An- 
cient Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  p.  285. 

2  Birch,  "Guide  to  Museum,"  p.  13. 

3  Birch  goes  as  far  as  to  say,  that  "  most  of  the  gods  were  con- 
nected with  the  sun,  and  represented  that  luminary  in  its  passage 
through  the  upper  or  lower  hemisphere"  ("Guide,"  p.  11);  but 
this  seems  to  be  an  exaggeration. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  17 

cial  sun-god,  adopted  into  the  general  pantheon. 
Athor,  moreover,  the  mother  of  Ra,  and  Isis,  the  sis- 
ter and  wife  of  Osiris,  were  in  some  sort  sun-god- 
desses, and  bore  upon  their  heads  the  disk  of  Ra, 
to  mark  their  close  connection  with  the  great  lumi- 
nary. 


THOTH. 

Compared  with  the  worship  of  the  sun,  that  of  the 
moon  was  quite  secondary  and  insignificant.  Two 
gods  only,  Khons  and  Thoth,  had  properly  speaking, 
a  lunar  character.1  Of  these  Khons  was  the  moon- 
god  simply,  while  Thoth  combined  with  his  lunar 
aspect,  somewhat  curiously,  the  character  of  "  the  god 

1  Representations  of  Osiris  are  found  as  Osiris-Aah   (Birch, 
"Guide  to  Museum,"    p.  15),  or   "Osiris,   the  moon  god;"  but 
these  are  purely  abnormal. 
2 


18  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

of  letters."  He  was  represented  with  the  head  of  an 
ibis ;  and  the  ibis  and  cynocephalous  ape  were  sacred 
to  him.  Both  he  and  Khons  commonly  bear  on  their 
heads  a  crescent  and  disk,  emblematic  respectively  of 
the  new  and  the  full  moon. 

Other  deities  of  some  importance  in  the  religious 
system  were  Maut,  the  consort  of  Amnion,  who 
represented  matter  or  nature;  Sati,  the  consort  of 
Kneph,  a  sort  of  Egyptian  Juno ;  Sekhet,  the  con- 
sort of  Phthah,  usually  represented  as  lion-headed,  or 
cat-headed;  Seb,  the  Egyptian  Saturn;  Hanhar 
(Onuris),  the  Egyptian  Mars ;  Sabak  or  Savak,  the 
crocodile-headed  god ;  Anuke,  a  war  goddess ;  Nebta 
(Nephthys),  sister  of  Osiris  and  Isis ;  Nut  or  Netpe, 
goddess  of  the  firmament ;  and  Ma,  goddess  of  truth. 
The  Egyptians  had  also  gods  of  taste  and  touch,  of 
silence,  of  writing,  of  medicine,  of  the  harvest,  etc. 
Almost  any  fact  of  nature,  almost  any  act  of  man, 
might  be  taken  separately  and  personified,  the  personi- 
fication Incoming  thenceforth  a  god  or  goddess. 

A  class  of  deities  possessing  a  very  peculiar  char- 
acter remains  to  be  noticed.  These  are  the  malevo- 
lent deities.  Set  or  Sutech,  the  great  enemy  of  Osi- 
ris, a  god  with  the  head  of  a  griffin  or  giraffe;  Bes, 
according  to  some,1  the  god  of  death;  Taouris  the 
wife  of  Bes;  and  Apap,  or  Apepi,  the  great  serpent, 
generally  represented  as  slain  by  Horus.2     All  these 

1  So  Wilkinson  ("Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  p.  431).  Others 
regard  Bes  as  simply  a  name  of  Set  or  Typhon  (Birch,  "  Diction- 
ary of  Hieroglyphics,"  p.  581). 

2  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  "Supplement,"  pi.  42. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 


19 


were  distinctly  malignant  and  evil  deities;  their 
representations  were,  in  every  case,  more  or  less  hid- 
eous and  grotesque;  they  were  all  feared  and  hated, 
but  nevertheless  worshipped ;  their  figures  were  worn 
as  charms,  and  even  temples  were  built  in  their  honour. 
While  the  entire  pantheon  of  Egypt  was  thus 
multiform  and  manifold,  practically  the  deities  who 


TEIAD  OF  SAVAK-RA,  ATHOR,  AND  KHONS. 

received  worship  in  each  several  town  and  district 
were  but  few.  Local  triads  were  almost  universally 
recognised,  and  in  each  place  its  special  triad  mon- 
opolised, so  to  say,  the  religious  regards  of  the  in- 
habitants.1    At  Memphis,  the  established  triad  con- 

1  "Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times,"   "Introduction,"  p.  xi.; 
Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  230-233. 


20  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

sisted  of  Phthah,  Sekhet,  and  Turn ;  at  Thebes,  of 
Ammon-Ea,  Maut,  and  Khons ;  at  Heliopolis  of  Ra, 
Nebhept  (=  Athor),  and  Horus ;  at  Elephantine  of 
Kneph,  Sati,  and  Anuke ;  at  Abydos,  of  Osiris,  Isis, 
and  Horus ;  at  Ombos,  of  Savak,  Athor,  and  Khons ; 
at  Silsilis,  of  Ra,  Phthah,  and  the  Nile  god,  Hapi  or 
Neilus.  Sometimes  a  fourth  god  or  goddess  was 
associated  with  the  principal  three,  as  Bast  at  Mem- 
phis, Neith  at  Thebes,  JNephthys  at  Abydos,  and 
Hak  at  Elephantine;  but  the  fourth  was  always 
quite  subordinate.  Occasionally  a  city  recognized 
more  than  one  triad ;  for  instance,  Silsilis  held  in 
honour,  besides  Ra,  Phthah,  and  Hapi,  a  triad  con- 
sisting of  Set,  Thoth,  and  Netpe ;  and  another  com- 
prising Amnion,  Ra,  and  Savak. 

Another  peculiar  feature  of  the  Egyptian  reli- 
gion, and  one  which,  though  it  may  have  had  some 
redeeming  points,1  must  be  pronounced  on  the  whole 
low  and  degrading,  was  the  worship  of  live  animals. 
In  the  first  instance,  certain  animals  seem  to  have 
been  assumed  as  emblems  of  certain  gods,2  from  some 
real  or  fancied  analogy ;  after  which,  in  course  of 
time,  the  animals  themselves  came  to  be  regarded 
as  sacred ;  specimens  of  them  were  attached  to  the 
temples,  kept  in  shrines,  and  carefully  fed  and  nur- 

1  The  sacred  character  of  cows  and  heifers  secured  a  continual 
increase  in  the  stock  of  cattle ;  that  of  cats  and  ichneumons,  of 
ibises,  hawks,  and  vultures,  preserved  those  useful  animals,  of 
which  the  two  former  kept  the  houses  free  from  mice  and  snakes, 
while  the  three  latter  were  admirable  scavengers. 

2  As  the  vulture  of  Maut,  the  ibis  of  Thoth,  and  the  ram  of 
Kneph,  etc. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         21 

tured  during  life,  and  at  death  embalmed  and  buried 
in  sacred  repositories,  while  the  entire  species  had  a 
sacred  character  assigned  to  it  universally  or  partial- 
ly. Animals  of  these  kinds  it  was  unlawful  to  kill, 
either  in  Egypt  generally,  or  within  the  limits  with- 
in which  they  were  honoured ;  if  they  died,  their 
death  was  mourned,  and  they  were  carefully  buried 
by  those  who  found  them,  or  to  whom  they  belonged, 
with  more  or  less  ceremony.1  Of  animals  universal- 
ly sacred  the  principal  were  cows  and  heifers,  which 
were  sacred  to  Athor ;  cynocephalous  apes  and  ibises, 
which  were  sacred  to  Thoth ;  cats,  which  were  sacred 
to  Bast;  hawks,  which  were  sacred  to  Ra;  and  per- 
haps asps,  though  this  is  uncertain.2  Sheep,  especial- 
ly rams,  were  generally  regarded  as  sacred,  being 
emblems  of  Kneph ;  and  dogs,  though  not  assigned 
to  any  special  deity,  held  a  similar  position. 

The  worship  of  other  animals  had  a  more  local 
character.  Lions,  emblems  of  Horus  and  Turn, 
were  sacred  at  Leontopolis;  crocodiles,  emblems 
of  Savak,  at  Crocodilopolis  and  in  the  Fayoum 
generally;  wolves  or  jackals,  emblems  of  Anu- 
bis,  at  Lycopolis;  shrew-mice,  emblems  of  Maut,  at 
Buto  and  Athribis ;  hippopotami,  emblems  of  Set 
and  Taouris,  at  Papremis;  antelopes  at  Coptos; 
ibexes  and  frogs  at  Thebes ;  goats  at  Mendu ;  vul- 
tures at  Eileithyia;  fish  at  Latopolis;  ichneumons 
at  Heracleopolis ;  and  other  animals  elsewhere. 
Each  town  was  jealous  for  the  honour  of  its  special 

1  Herod,  ii.  66,  67,  with  Wilkinson's  notes. 

2 So  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  v.  p.  243. 


22  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

favourites ;  and  quarrels  broke  out  between  city  and 
city,  or  between  province  and  province,  in  connection 
with  their  sacred  animals,  which  led  in  some  cases 
to  violent  and  prolonged  conflicts,  in  others  to  a 
smouldering  but  permanent  hostility.  It  is  difficult 
to  say  how  much  of  the  religious  sentiment  of  the 
nation  was  absorbed  by  these  unworthy  objects;  but 
there  is  no  just  ground  for  believing  that  the  animal 
worship,  absurd  as  it  may  have  been,  interfered  seri- 
ously with  the  reverence  and  respect  which  were 
paid  to  the  proper  deities. 

The  worst,  and  most  pronounced  form  of  the 
animal  worship  has  still  to  be  mentioned.  In  some 
instances  the  belief  was,  not  that  a  particular  class  of 
animals  had  a  sacred  character,  but  that  a  deity  abso- 
lutely became  incarnate  in  an  individual  animal,  and 
so  remained  till  its  death.  Animals  to  which  this 
was  supposed  to  have  happened  were  actual  gods, 
and  received  the  most  profound  veneration  that  it  was 
possible  to  pay.  Such  were  the  Apis  bulls,  of  which 
a  succession  was  maintained  at  Memphis,  in  the 
temple  of  Phthah,  incarnations,  according  to  some, 
of  Phthah,1  according  to  others  of  Osiris,2  which 
were  among  the  objects  of  worship  most  venerated  by 
the  Egyptians.  Such,  again,  were  the  Mnevis  bulls 
of  Heliopolis,  incarnations  of  Ra  or  Turn,  and  the 
Bacis  or  Pacis  bulls  of  Her  month  is,  incarnations  of 
Horus.     These  beasts,  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the 

JSee  Birch,  "Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times,"  "Introduc- 
tion," p.  xii. 

2  Wilkinson,  in  Rawlinson's  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.  p.  428,  note  2. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         23 

priestly  communities  in  the  great  temples  of  their  re- 
spective cities,  were  perpetually  adored  and  prayed 
to  by  thousands  during  their  lives,  and  at  their  deaths 
were  entombed  with  the  utmost  care  in  huge  sar- 
cophagi, while  all  Egypt  went  into  mourning  on  ac- 
count of  their  decease. 

The  external  manifestation  of  religion  in  Egypt 
was  magnificent  and  splendid.  Nowhere  did  religious 
ceremonial  occupy  a  larger  part  in  the  life  of  a  people. 
In  each  city  and  town,  one  or  more  grand  structures 
upreared  themselves  above  the  rest  of  the  buildings, 
enriched  with  all  that  Egyptian  art  could  supply  of 
painted  and  sculptured  decoration,  dedicated  to  the 
honour  and  bearing  the  name  of  some  divinity  or 
divinities.  The  image  of  the  great  god  of  the  place 
occupied  the  central  shrine,  accompanied  in  most  in- 
stances by  two  or  three  contemplar  gods  or  goddesses. 
Around  were  the  chambers  of  the  priests,  and  further 
off  court  after  court,  some  pillared,  some  colonnaded 
and  all  more  or  less  adorned  with  sculpture  and  paint- 
ing, the  entrance  to  them  lying  through  long  avenues 
of  sphinxes  or  obelisks,  which  conducted  to  the 
propylsea,  two  gigantic  towers  flanking  the  main 
doorway.1  A  perpetual  ceremonial  of  the  richest  kind 
went  on  within  the  temple  walls  ;  scores  of  priests, 
with  shaven  heads  and  clean  white  linen  garments,2 
crowded   the   courts   and    corridors;    long    proces- 

1  These  towers  have  been  compared,  with  some  reason,  to  those 
which  commonly  adorn  the  western  facade  of  our  cathedrals. 
(Fergusson,  "History  of  Architecture,"  vol.  i.  p.  117.) 

a  Herod,  ii.  37. 


24  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

sions  made  their  way  up  or  down  the  sphinx 
avenues,  incense  floated  in  the  air,  strains  of  music 
.  resounded  without  pause,  hundreds  of  victims  were 
sacrificed  ;  everywhere  a  holiday  crowd,  in  bright 
array,  cheerful  and  happy,  bore  its  part  in  the  festi- 
val, and  made  the  courts  re-echo  with  their  joyous 
acclamations.  The  worship  was  conducted  chiefly 
by  means  of  rhythmic  litanies  or  hymns,  in  which 
prayer  and  praise  were  blended,  the  latter  predomi- 
nating.1 Ceremony  followed  ceremony.  The  cal- 
endar was  crowded  with  festivals :  and  a  week  rarely 
passed  without  the  performance  of  some  special 
rite,  some  annual  observance,  having  its  own 
peculiar  attractions.  Foreigners  beheld  with  aston- 
ishment the  almost  perpetual  round  of  religious  ser- 
vices, which  engaged,  or  at  any  rate  seemed  to  en- 
gage, the  main  attention  of  all  ranks  of  the  people. 

Belief  in  a  future  life  was  a  main  principle  of  the 
Egyptian  religion.  Immediately  after  death,  the 
soul,  it  was  taught,  descended  into  the  lower  world 
( Amenti),  and  was  conducted  to  the  "  Hall  of  Truth," 
where  it  was  judged  in  the  presence  of  Osiris,  and  of 
his  forty-two  assessors,  the  "  Lords  of  Truth,"  and 
judges  of  the  dead.  Anubis,  the  son  of  Osiris,  who 
was  called  "  the  director  of  the  weight,"  brought 
forth  a  pair  of  scales,  and  after  placing  in  one  scale 
a  figure  or  emblem  of  Truth,  set  in  the  other  a  vase 

1  See  the  "Litany  of  Ra,"  and  the  "  Hymns"  to  Osiris,  Amen, 
Amen-Ra.,  and  Ra-Harmachis,  published  in  "Records  of  the 
Past,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  105-134;  vol.  iv.  pp.  99-104;  vol.  vi.  pp.  99- 
101;  and  vol.  viii.  pp.  131-134. 


CBs^- 


i%;J£ottj.l 


ftSosl^OM' 


26  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

containing  the  good  deeds  of  the  deceased,  Thoth 
standing  by  the  while,  with   a  tablet  in   his   hand, 
whereon  to  record  the  result.1     If  the  good  deeds 
were  sufficient,  if  they  weighed  down  the  scale  where- 
in they  were  placed,  then  the  happy  soul  was  per- 
mitted to  enter  "  the  boat  of  the  sun,"  and  was  con- 
ducted by  good  spirits  to  the  Elysian  fields  (Aahlu), 
to  the  "  Pools  of  Peace,"  and  the  dwelling-places  of 
the  blest.     If,  on  the  contrary,  the  good  deeds  were 
insufficient,  if  the  scale  remained  suspended  in  the 
air,  then  the  unhappy  soul  was  sentenced,  according 
to  the  degree  of  its  ill  deserts,  to  go  through  a  round 
of  transmigrations  in  the  bodies  of  animals  more  or 
less  unclean ;  the  number,  nature,  and  duration  of 
the  transmigrations  depending  on  the  degree  of  the 
deceased's  demerits,  and  the  consequent  length .  and 
severity  of  the  punishment  which  he  deserved,  or  the 
purification  which  he  needed.     Ultimately,  if  after 
many  trials   sufficient  purity  was  not  attained,  the 
wicked    soul,   which   had   proved   itself  incurable, 
underwent  a   final  sentence  at  the  hands  of  Osiris, 
judge  of  the  dead,  and,  being  condemned  to  complete 
and  absolute  annihilation,  was  destroyed  upon  the 
steps  of  Heaven  by  Shu,  the  Lord  of  Light.2     The 
good  soul,  having  first  been  freed  from  its  infirmities 
by  passing  through   the   basin  of  purgatorial  fire 

1  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  v.  pp.  314,  315.  Re- 
presentations of  the  scene  are  frequent  in  the  tombs,  and  in  the 
many  copies  of  the  "Ritual  of  the  Dead."  (See  the  accompany- 
ing wood-cut.) 

3  Birch,  "Guide  to  Museum,"  pp.  14,  15. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         27 

guarded  by  the  four  ape-faced  genii,  was  made  the 
companion  of  Osiris,  for  a  period  of  three  thousand 
years,  after  which  it  returned  from  Amenti,  re-en- 
tered its  former  body,  rose  from  the  dead,  and  lived 
once  more  a  human  life  upon  the  earth.  This  process 
was  gone  through  again  and  again,  until  a  certain 
mystic  cycle   of  years  became   complete,  when,  to 


MUMMY  AND  DISEMBODIED  SPIRIT. 

crown  all,  the  good  and  blessed  attained  the  final  joy 
of  union  with  God,  being  absorbed  into  the  divine 
essence  from  which  they  had  once  emanated,  and  so 
attaining  the  full  perfection  and  true  end  of  their  ex- 
istence. 

With   their   belief    in,  a   future   life,   and   their 
opinions  regarding  the  fate  of  good  and  bad  souls, 


28  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

were  bound  up  in  the  closest  way  their  arrangements 
with  respect  to  dead  bodies,  and  their  careful  and 
elaborate  preparation  of  tombs.     As  each  man  hoped 
to  be  among  those  who  would  be  received  into  Aahlu, 
and  after  dwelling  with   Osiris  for  three  thousand 
years  would  return  to  earth,  and  re-enter  their  old 
bodies,  it  was  requisite  that  bodies  should  be  enabled 
to  resist  decay  for  that  long  period.     Hence  the  en- 
tire system  of  embalming,  of  swathing  in  linen,  and 
then  burying  in  stone  sarcophagi  covered  with  lids 
that  it  was  scarcely  possible  to  lift,  or  even  to  move. 
Hence  if  a  man  was  wealthy,  he  spent  enormous  sums 
on  making  himself  a  safe  and  commodious,  an  elegant 
and  decorated  tomb;   either  piling  a  pyramid  over 
his  sarcophagus,  or  excavating  deep  into  the  solid 
rock,  and  preparing  for  his  resting-place  a  remote 
chamber  at   the   end  of  a  long   series   of  galleries. 
With  the  notion,  probably,  that  it  would  be  of  use  to 
him  in   his  passage   through  Amenti  to  Aahlu,   he 
took  care  to  have  the  most   important  passages  from 
the  sacred  book  entitled   the  "  Ritual  of  the  Dead," 
either   inscribed  on  the  inner  part  of  the  coffin  in 
which  he  was  to  lie,  or  painted  on  his  mummy  ban- 
dages, or  engraved  upon  the  inner  walls  of  his  tomb.1 
Sometimes  he  even  had  a  complete  copy  of  the  book 
buried  with  him,  no  doubt  for  reference,  if  his  mem- 
ory failed  to  supply  him  with  the  right  invocation  or 
prayer  at  the  dangerous  parts  of  his  long  journey. 

The  thought  of  death,  of  judgment,  of  a  sentence 
to  happiness  or  misery  according  to  the  life  led  on 
1  Bunsen,  "Egypt's  Place,"  vol.  v.  pp.  127-129. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.  29 

earth,  was  thus  familiar  to  the  ordinary  Egyptian. 
His  theological  notions  were  confused  and  fantas- 
tical; but  he  had  a  strong  and  abiding  conviction 
that  his  fate  after  death  would  depend  on  his  conduct 
during  his  life  on  earth,  and  especially  on  his  obser- 
vance of  the  moral  law  and  performance  of  his  vari- 
ous duties.1 

The  better  educated  Egyptian  had  a  firmer  grasp 
of  the  truths  of  natural  religion.  Below  the  pojiular 
mythology  there  lay  concealed  from  general  view, 
but  open  to  the  educated  classes,  a  theological  sys- 
tem which  was  not  far  removed  from  pure  "  natural 
theology."  The  real  essential  unity  of  the  divine 
nature  was  taught  and  insisted  on.  The  sa'cred 
texts  spoke  of  a  single  being,  "  the  sole  producer  of 
all  things  in  heaven  and  earth,  himself  not  produced 
of  any,"  "  the  only  true  living  God,  self-originated," 
"who  exists  from  the  beginning,"  "who  has  made 
all  things,  but  has  not  himself  been  made." 2     This 

1  See  Birch,  "Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times,"  p.  46: — "The 
Egyptian  enjoyed  all  the  pleasures  of  existence,  and  delighted 
more  in  the  arts  of  peace  than  war.  In  his  religious  belief  the 
idea  of  a  future  state,  and  probably  of  the  transmigration  of  souls, 
was  ever  present  to  his  mind,  while — and  his  long  life  was  one 
preparation  for  death — to  be  devoted  or  pious  to  the  gods,  obedi- 
ent to  the  wishes  of  his  sovereign,  affectionate  towards  his  wife 
and  children,  were  the  maxims  inculcated  for  his  domestic  or 
inner  life.  Beyond  that  circle  his  duties  to  mankind  were  com- 
prised in  giving  bread  to  the  hungry,  drink  to  the  thirsty,  clothes 
to  the  naked,  oil  to  the  wounded,  and  burial  to  the  dead.  On 
the  exercise  of  good  works  he  rested  his  hopes  of  passing  the 
ordeal  of  the  future  and  great  judgment,  and  reaching  the  Aahlu 
or  Elysian  fields,  and  Pools  of  Peace  of  the  Egyptian  paradise." 

2Lenormant,  "Manuel  d'Histoire   Ancienne,"  vol.  i.  p.  522. 


30  TJie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

being  seems  never  to  have  been  represented  by  any 
material,  even  symbolical  form.1     It  is  thought  that 
he  had  no  name,  or,  if  he  had,  that  it  must  have 
been   unlawful   to   pronounce   or   write   it.2     Even 
Amnion,  the  "concealed  God,"  was  a  mere  external 
adumbration  of  this  mysterious  and  unapproachable 
deity.     He  was  a  pure  spirit,  perfect  in  every  re- 
spect, all-wise,  all-mighty,  supremely,  perfectly  good. 
Those  who  grasped  this  great  truth  understood 
clearly  that  the  many  gods  of  the  popular  mythology 
wTere  mere  names,  personified   attributes  of  the  one 
true   Deity,  or  parts  of  the  nature  which  he  had 
created,  considered  as  informed  and  inspired  by  him. 
Num   or   Kneph    represented    the   creative    mind, 
Phthah  the  creative  hand,  or  act  of  creating ;  Maut 
represented   matter,  Ra  the  sun,  Khons  the  moon, 
Seb  the  earth,  Khem  the  generative  power  in  nature, 
Keith  the  conceptive  power,  Nut  the  upper  hemis- 
phere of  heaven,  Athor  the  lower  world  or  under 
hemisphere;  Thoth   personified  the  divine  wisdom, 
Ammon  the  divine  mysteriousness  or  incomprehensi- 
bility, Osiris  the  divine  goodness.     It  may  not  be 
always  easy  to  say  what  is  the  exact  quality,  act,  or 
part  of  nature  which  is  represented  by  each  god  and 
goddess ;  but  the  principle  was  clear  and  beyond  a 
doubt.     No  educated  Egyptian  priest  certainly,  pro- 
Similar  phrases  are  frequent  in  all  the  religious  inscriptions. 
(See  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  129-132  ;  vol.  iv.  pp.  99 
100 ;  voL  vi.  100,  etc.) 

1  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  iv.  p.  178." 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         31 

bably  no  educated  layman,  conceived  of  the  popular 
gods  as  really  separate  and  distinct  beings.  All 
knew  that  there  was  but  one  god,  and  understood 
that  when  worship  was  offered  to  Khem,  or  Phthah, 
or  Maut,  or  Thoth,  or  Amnion,  the  one  god  was 
worshipped  under  some  one  of  his  forms,  or  in  some 
one  of  his  aspects.  Hence,  in  the  solemn  hymns  and 
chants,  which  were  composed  by  the  priests  to  be 
used  in  the  various  festivals,  the  god  who  is  for  the 
time  addressed  receives  all  the  highest  titles  of  honour, 
and  even  has  the  names  of  other  gods  freely  assigned 
to  him,  as  being  in  some  sort  identical  with  them. 
Thus  in  one  hymn,  Hapi,  the  Nile  god,  is  invoked 
as  Ammon  and  Phthah;1  in  another,  Osiris  as  Ra 
and  Thoth;2  while  in  a  third  Ra  is  Khem  and 
Ammon,  Turn  and  Horus  and  Khepra  all  in  one,3 
and  though  spoken  of  as  "begotten  of  Phthah,"4  is 
"the  good  god,"  "the  chief  of  all  the  gods,"  "the 
ancient  of  heaven,"  "the  lord  of  all  existences,"  "the 
support  of  all  things."5 

It  is  not  altogether  easy  to  say  what  the  educated 
Egyptian  believed  with  respect  to  evil.  The  myth  of 
Osiris  represented  him  as  persecuted  by  his  brother, 
Set  or  Sutech,  who  murdered  him  and  cut  up  his 
body  into  several  pieces,  after  which  he  was  made 
war  upon  by  Horus,  Osiris'  son,  and  in  course  of 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iv.  p.  107,  11.  4  and  11. 
a  Ibid.  p.  103,  par.  24,  ad  fin. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  pp.  130,  131,  and  133. 

4  Ibid.  p.  129,  1.  20. 

5  Ibid.  11.  2-12. 


32  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

time  deposed  and  thrust  down  to  darkness.1  In 
the  latter  mythology  Set  and  Bes,  Taouris  and  Apepi 
were  distinctly  malignant  beings,  personifications,  ap- 
parently, of  an  evil  principle;  and  from  the  inscrip- 
tions and  papyri  of  this  period,  we  should  gather 
that  the  Egyptian  religion  was  dualistic,  and  com- 
prised the  idea  of  a  constant  and  interminable  strug- 
gle between  the  powers  of  light  and  darkness,  of 
good  and  evil;  a  struggle  in  which  there'was  some 
superiority  on  the  part  of  good,  but  no  complete 
victory,  not  even  a  very  decided  preponderance.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  we  go  back  and  examine  carefully 
the  more  ancient  monuments  and  the  earlier  writings, 
we  find  less  and  less  trace  of  this  antagonism;  we 
find  Set  or  Sutech  spoken  of  as  "great,"  " glorious;"2 
we  find  that  the  kings  identify  themselves  with  him, 3 
build  him  magnificent  temples,  and  make  him  numer- 
ous offerings.4  It  is  doubtful  whether  at  this  time 
any  notion  existed  of  evil  or  malignancy  attaching 
to  Set.  If  it  did,  we  must  suppose  the  early  creed 
to  have  been  that  "  the  bad  was  a  necessary  part  of 
the  universal  system,  and  inherent  in  all  things 
equally  with  the  good;  "5  and  so,  that  divine  honours 
were  due  to  the  gods  representing  the  principles  of 
disorder  and  evil  no  less  than  to  those  representing 
the  opposite  principles.     The  change  of  view  with 

1  Wilkinson,  "  Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  329-333. 

2  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iv.  p.  29. 
8  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  76 ;  vol.  viii.  p.  75. 

4  Ibid.  vol.  iv.  p.  27 ;  vol.  viii.  pp.  27-31. 

&  So  Wilkinson,  "Ancient  Egyptians,"  vol.  iv.  p.  423. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.         33 

regard  to  Set  may  have  been  connected  to  some  ex- 
tent with  national  rivalries,  for  Set  was,  beyond  a 
doubt,  the  special  god  of  the  Hyksos,1  the  foreign 
conquerors  of  Egypt,  whom  after-ages  detested,  and 
also  of  the  Khita  or  Hittites,2  with  whom  the 
Pharaohs  of  the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and  twen- 
tieth dynasties  were  engaged  in  constant  hostilities. 

It  has  been  maintained  by  some  that  the  religion 
of  the  educated  Egyptians  comprised  a  recognition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The  learned  Cud- 
worth  in  the  seventeenth  century  undertook  to  prove 
that  a  doctrine  closely  resembling  the  Christian  had 
been  taught  by  the  Egyptian  priests  many  centuries 
before  Christ,3  and  some  moderns  have  caught  at  his 
statements,  and  laid  it  down  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  may  be  traced  to  an  Egyptian  source.  But 
there  is  really  not  the  slightest  ground  for  this  asser- 
tion. Cud  worth's  arguments  were  long  ago  met  and 
refuted  by  Mosheim;4  and  modern  investigation  of 
the  Egyptian  remains  has  but  confirmed  Mosheim's 
conclusions.  The  Egyptians  held  the  unity  of  God; 
but  their  unity  had  within  it  no  trinity.  God  with 
them  was  absolutely  one  in  essence,  and  when  divi- 
ded up,  was  divided,  not  into  three,  but  into  a  mul- 
titude of  aspects.  It  is  true  that  they  had  a  fancy 
for  triads;  but  a  triad  is  not  a  Trinity.     The  triads 

1  Birch,  "  Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times,"  p.  75 ;  "  Records  of 
the  East,"  vol.  viii.  p.  3. 

2  "Records  of  the  East,"  vol.  iv.  pp.  31,  32. 

3  See  the  "Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe,"  ch.  v.  p.  413. 

4  In  the  Latin  translation  of  Cud  worth's  great  work,  notes  to 
p.  413. 

S 


34  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

are  not  groups  of  persons,  but  of  attributes;  the 
three  are  not  coequal,  but  distinctly  the  reverse,  the 
third  in  the  triad  being  always  subordinate;  nor  is 
the  division  regarded  as  in  any  case  exhaustive  of 
the  divine  nature,  or  exclusive  of  other  divisions. 
Moreover,  as  already  observed,  the  triad  is  frequently 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  a  fourth  person  or  char- 
acter, who  is  associated  as  closely  with  the  other 
three  as  they  are  with  each  other.  Cud  worth's 
view  must  therefore  be  set  aside  as  altogether  imagi- 
nary; and  the  encomiast  of  the  Egyptian  religion 
must  content  himself  with  pointing  out  that  a  real 
monotheism  underlay  the  superficial  polytheism,  with- 
out requiring  us  to  believe  that  even  the  wisest  of 
the  priests  had  any  knowledge  of  the  greatest  of  all 
Christian  mysteries.1 

iSee  Latin  translation  of  Cud  worth's  great  work,  p.  28. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE     RELIGION     OF   THE     ASSYRIANS     AND    BABY- 
LONIANS. 

u  Bel  boweth  down,  Nebo  stoopeth.'' — Isaiah  xlvi.  1. 
"Merodach  is  broken  in  pieces." — Jeu.  1.  2. 

rTIHE  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  polytheism  differed 
-*-  from  the  Egyptian,  in  the  first  place,  by  being 
less  multitudinous,1  and  in  the  second,  by  having, 
far  more  than  the  Egyptian,  an  astral  character. 
The  Mesopotamian  system  was,  moreover,  so  far  as 
appears,  what  the  Egyptian  was  not,  a  belief  in  real- 
ly distinct  gods.  The  great  personages  of  the  pan- 
theon have  for  the  most  part  their  own  peculiar 
offices  and  attributes ;  they  do  not  pass  the  one  into 
the  other ;  they  do  not  assume  each  other's  names ; 
they  do  not  combine  so  as  to  produce  a  single 
deity  out  of  several.  We  have  no  indication  in 
the  literary  remains  of  Babylon  or  Assyria  of  any 
esoteric  religion,  no  evidence  on  which  we  can  lay  it 
down  that  the  conceptions  of  the  educated  upon  religi- 
ous subjects  differed  seriously  from  those  of  the  lowest 
1  It  is  true  that  the  inscriptions  speak  in  a  vague  way  of  "  four 
thousand,"  and  even  of  the  "  five  thousand  gods"  ("Records  of 
the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  p.  128;  Rawlinson,  "Ancient  Monarchies," 
vol.  i.  p.  155,  note  9).  But,  practically,  there  are  not  more  than 
about  twenty  deities  who  obtain  frequent  mention. 

35 


36  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

ranks  of  worshippers.1  Berosus,who  was  a  Chaldsean 
priest,  and  who  should,  therefore,  if  there  was  any 
such  system,  have  been  well  acquainted  with  it,  has 
in  his  extant  fragments  nothing  monotheistic,  noth- 
ing to  distinguish  his  religious  views  from  those  of 
the  mass  of  his  countrymen.  According  to  all  ap- 
pearance, the  religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assy- 
rians was  thus  a  real  polytheism,  a  worship  of  nu- 
merous divinities,  whom  it  was  not  thought  necessary 
to  trace  to  a  single  stock,2  who  were  essentially  on  a 
par  the  one  with  the  other,  and  who  divided  among 
them  the  religious  regards  of  the  people. 

An  account  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  reli- 
gion must  thus  be,  in  the  main,  an  account  of  their 
pantheon.  From  the  character  of  their  gods,  from 
the  actions  and  attributes  assigned  to  them,  from  the 
material  representations  under  which  they  showed 
them  forth,  we  must  gather  the  tone  of  their  reli- 
gious thought,  the  nature  of  the  opinions  which  they 
entertained  concerning  the  mysterious  powers  above 
them  and  beyond  them,  whom  they  recognized  as 
divine  beings. 

In  each  country,  at  the  head  of  the  pantheon  stood 
a  god,  not  the  origin  of  the  others,  nor  in  any  real 
sense  the  fountain  of  divinity,  but  of  higher  rank 
and  dignity  than  the  rest,  primus  inter  pares,  ordina- 

i  The  late  Mr.  Fox  Talbot  expressed  in  1873  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent opinion.  (See  the  "Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Bibli- 
cal Archceology,"  vol.  ii.  p.  35.)  But  it  does  not  appear  to  me 
that  he  made  out  his  case. 

2  See  the  Author's  "  Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  H2. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      37 

rily  named  first,  and  assigned  the  titles  of  greatest 
honour,  and  forming  the  principal  or  at  least  the 
highest  object  of  worship  both  to  the  kings  and 
people.  This  deity  is,  in  Assyria,  Asshur ;  in  Baby- 
lonia, II  or  Ra.  Some  critics1  are  of  opinion  that 
the  two  gods  are  essentially  one,  that  the  Assyrian 
Asshur  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  II  or  Ra 
localized  and  regarded  as  the  special  god  of  Assyria, 
the  protector  of  the  Assyrian  territory  and  the  tute- 
lary divinity  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  But  this  view 
is  not  generally  accepted,  and  seems  to  rest  upon  no 
sure  foundation.  There  is  a  marked  difference  of 
character  and  position  between  the  Babylonian  II 
and  the  Assyrian  Asshur.  II  in  the  Babylonian 
system  is  dim  and  shadowy ;  his  attributes  are,  com- 
paratively speaking,  indistinct ;  and  his  very  name 
is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.2  Asshur  in  the  Assy- 
rian system  is,  of  all  the  gods,  by  far  the  most  pro- 
nounced and  prominent  figure.  No  name  occurs  so 
often  as  his ;  no  god  has  attributes  so  clearly  marked 
and  positive.  On  these  grounds  it  has  been  generally 
held,  that  the  two  are  not  to  be  identified,  but  to  be 
kept  distinct,  and  to  be  regarded  as  respectively 
peculiar  to  the  two  nations.  We  proceed,  therefore, 
to  speak  of  them  separately. 

II  (or  Ra)  was,  as  already  remarked,  a  somewhat 

i  As  M.  Lenormant.  (See  his  "  Manuel  d'Histoire  Ancienne," 
vol.  ii.,  p.  182.) 

2  In  the  six  Assyrian  volumes  of  "  Records  of  the  Past,"'  I  find 
the  name  of  II  (or  El)  only  four  times  (vol.  v.,  pp.  21,  129  ;  vol. 
vii.,  pp.  95,  96).  In  two  of  these  places  it  seems  to  stand  for 
Bel,  who  is  called  Bel-El  sometimes  (Ibid.  vol.  xi.,  p.  24). 


38  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

shadowy  being.  There  is  a  vagueness  about  the 
name  itself,  which  means  simply  "  god,"  and  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  connote  any  particular  attribute. 
The  Babylonians  never  represent  his  form,  and  they 
frequently  omit  him  from  lists  which  seem  to  contain 
all  the  other  principal  gods.1  Yet  he  was  certainly 
regarded  as  the  head  of  the  pantheon,  and  in  the 
most  ancient  times  must  have  been  acknowledged  as 
the  tutelary  deity  of  Babylon  itself,  which  received 
its  name  of  Bab-il  (in  Accadian,  Ka-ra),  meaning 
"  the  Gate  of  II,"  from  him.  He  seems  to  have  had 
no  special  temple,  being  probably  worshipped  in  all 
temples  by  the  few  persons  who  were  his  votaries. 
His  name  was,  occasionally,  but  not  very  frequently, 
used  as  an  element  in  the  personal  appellations  of 
Babylonians.2 

Asshur,  the  Assyrian  substitute  for  II  or  Ra,  was 
primarily  and  especially  the  tutelary  deity  of  Assyria 
and  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  The  land  of  Assyria 
bears  his  name  without  any  modification ;  its  inhabi- 
tants are  "his  servants"  or  "his  people;"  its  troops 
"the  armies  of  the  god  Asshur;"  its  enemies  "the 
enemies  of  Asshur."  As  for  the  kings,  they  stand 
connected  with  him  in  respect  of  almost  everything 
which  they  do.  He  places  them  upon  the  throne, 
firmly  establishes  them  in  the  government,  lengthens 

1  As,  for  instance,  that  of  Agu-kak-rinii  in  the  inscription  pub- 
lished in  vol.  vii.  of  the  "Records,"  pp.  7,  8,  where  ten  "great 
gods"  are  enumerated,  viz.:  Anu  and  Anunit,  Bel  and  Beltis, 
Hea  and  Davkina,  Zira  (Zir-banit?),  Sin,  Shamas,  and  Merodach, 
but  no  mention  is  made  of  II. 

2  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii.  p.  16 ;  vol.  ix.  p.  99  ;  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      39 

the  years  of  their  reigns,  preserves  their  power,  pro- 
tects their  forts  and  armies,  directs  their  expeditions, 
gives  them  victory  on  the  day  of  battle,  makes  their 
name  celebrated,  multiplies  their  offspring  greatly, 
and  the  like.  To  him  they  look  for  the  fulfilment  of 
all  their  wishes,  and  especially  for  the  establishment 
of  their  sons,  and  their  sons'  sons,  on  the  Assyrian 
throne  to  the  remotest  ages.  Their  usual  phrase 
when  speaking  of  him  is,  "  Asshur,  my  lord."  They 
represent  themselves  as  passing  their  lives  in  his  ser- 
vice. It  is  to  spread  his  worship  that  they  carry  on 
their  wars.  They  fight,  ravage,  destroy  in  his  name. 
Finally,  when  they  subdue  a  country,  they  are  care- 
ful to  "  set  up  the  emblems  of  Asshur,"  and  to  make 
the  conquered  people  conform  to  his  laws.1 

The  ordinary  titles  of  Asshur  are, "  the  great  lord," 
"  the  king  of  all  the  gods,"  "  he  who  rules  supreme 
over  the  gods."  He  is  also  called,  occasionally,  "  the 
father  of  the  gods,"  although  that  is  a  title  which 
belongs  more  properly  to  Bel.  He  is  figured  as  a 
man  with  a  horned  cap,  and  often  carrying  a  bow, 
issuing  from  the  middle  of  a  winged  circle,  and  either 
shooting  an  arrow,  or  stretching  forth  his  hand,  as  if 
to  aid  or  smite.  The  winged  circle  by  itself  is  also 
used  as  his  emblem,  and  probably  denotes  his  ubiquity 
and  eternity,  as  the  human  form  does  his  intelligence, 
and  the  horned  cap  his  power.  This  emblem,  with 
or  without  the  human  figure,  is  an  almost  invariable 
accompaniment  of  Assyrian  royalty.     The  great  king 

1  ''Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  p.  17;  vol.  iii.  pp.  8G,  93,  95, 
96 ;  vol.  v.  pp.  14,  15,  etc. ;  vol.  ix.  pp.  5,  8,  9,  etc. 


40  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

wears  it  embroidered  upon  his  robes,  carries  it  en- 
graved upon  his  seal  or  cylinder,  represents  it  above 
his  head  in  the  rock-tablets  whereon  he  carves  his 
image,  stands  or  kneels  in  ador- 
ation before  it,  fights  under  its 
shadow,  under  its  protection  re- 
turns victorious,  places  it  con- 
spicuously upon  his  obelisks. 
And  in  all  these  representations,  it  is  remarkable 
how  he  makes  the  emblem  conform  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  he  is  himself  engaged  at  the  time. 
Where  he  is  righting,  Asshur,  too,  has  his  arrow 
upon  the  string,  and  points  it  against  the  monarch's 
adversaries.  When  he  is  returning  home  victorious, 
with  the  disused  bow  in  his  left  hand,  and  his  right 
hand  outstretched  and  elevated,  Asshur,  too,  has  the 
same  attitude.  In  peaceful  scenes  the  bow  disappears 
altogether.  If  the  king  worships,  the  god  holds  out 
his  hand  to  aid;  if  he  is  engaged  in  secular  acts,  the 
Divine  presence  is  thought  to  be  sufficiently  marked 
by  the  circle  and  the  wings  without  the  human 
figure.1 

In  immediate  succession  to  Asshur  in  Assyria  and 
II  in  Babylonia,  Ave  find  in  both  countries  a  triad, 
consisting  of  Anu,  Bel,  and  Hea  or  Hoa.  These 
three  are  called,  par  excellence,  "the  great  gods."2 
In  execrations  they  are  separated  off  from  all  the 
other  deities,  and  placed  together  in  a  clause  which 

1  See  the  Author's  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  234,  235. 

2  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  p.  121;  vol.  ix.  pp.  100, 
106,  eto. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      41 

stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  curses.  In  invoca- 
tions their  names  follow,  for  the  most  part,  imme- 
diately after  the  name  of  Asshur;  and  this  is  their 
usual  and  proper  position  in  all  complete  lists  of  the 
chief  gods.1  Ami  and  Bel  in  the  Babylonian  system 
are  brothers,  both  being  sons  of  II  or  Ra;  but  this 
relationship  is  scarcely  acknowledged  in  Assyria. 
Hoa  in  both  countries  stands  apart,  unconnected 
with  the  other  two,  and,  indeed,  unconnected  with 
any  of  the  other  gods,  except  with  such  as  are  his 
offspring. 

It  has  been  conjectured2  that  in  this  triad  we  have 
a  cosmogonic  myth,  and  that  the  three  deities  repre- 
sent, Anu,  the  primordial  chaos,  or  matter  without 
form ;  Hoa,  life  and  intelligence,  considered  as  mov- 
ing in  and  animating  matter ;  and  Bel,  the  organis- 
ing and  creating  spirit,  by  which  matter  was  actually 
brought  into  subjection,  and  the  material  universe 
arranged  in  an  orderly  way.  But  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  the  veil  which  hides  the  esoteric 
meaning  of  the  Assyrian  religion  has  been  as  yet 
sufficiently  lifted  to  entitle  such  conjectures  to  much 
attention.  Our  own  belief  is  that  Anu,  Bel,  and 
Hoa,  were  originally  the  gods  of  the  earth,  of  the 
heaven,  and  of  the  waters,  thus  corresponding  in  the 
main  to  the  classical  Pluto,  Zeus  or  Jupiter,  and 
Poseidon  or  Neptune,  who  divided  between  them  the 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii.  p.  83;  vol.  v.  p.  29;  vol.  vii. 
p.  7;  vol.  ix.  p.  23,  etc. 

2  See  Lenormant,  "Manuel  d'Histoire  Anciennc,"  vol.  ii.  pp. 
182,  183. 


42  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

dominion  over  the  visible  creation.  But  such  notions 
became,  in  course  of  time,  overlaid  to  a  great  extent 
with  others;  and  though  Hoa  continued  always  more 
or  less  of  a  water  deity,  Anu  and  Bel  ceased  to  have 
peculiar  spheres,  and  became  merely  "  great  gods," 
with  a  general  superintendence  over  the  world,  and 
with  no  very  marked  difference  of  powers. 

Anu  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  the  old  Anu," 
"  the  original  chief,"  "  the  king  of  the  lower  world," 
and  "  the  lord  of  spirits  and  demons."  There  is  one 
text  in  which  he  seems  to  be  called  "  the  father  of 
the  gods,"  but  the  reading  is  doubtful.  We  cannot 
identify  as  his  any  of  the  divine  forms  on  the  As- 
syrian or  Babylonian  monuments,  nor  can  we  assign 
to  him  any  emblem,  excepting  that  of  the  single  up- 
right wedge,  which  represents  him  on  the  Chaldsean 
numeration  tablets.  This  single  wedge  has  the 
numerical  power  of  sixty,  and  sixty  appears  to  have 
been  assigned  to  Anu  as  his  special  number.  Though 
a  "  great  god,"  he  was  not  one  towards  whom  much 
preference  was  shown.  His  name  is  scarcely  ever 
found  as  an  element  in  royal  or  other  appellations ; 
the  kings  do  not  very  often  mention  him ;  and  only 
one  monarch  speaks  of  himself  as  his  special  votary.1 

The  god  Bel,  familiarly  known  to  us  both  from 
Scripture2  and  from  the  Apocrypha,3  is  one  of  the 
most  marked  and  striking  figures  in  the  pantheon 

iTiglath  Pileser  i.  (see  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  24.) 
Yet  even  he  is  still  more  devoted  to  Asshur. 

2  Isaiah  xlvi.  1 ;  Jer.  1.  2 ;  li.  44. 

3  See  the  history  of  "  Bel  and  the  Dragon." 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      43 

alike  of  Babylonia  and  of  Assyria.  Bel  is  "  the  god 
of  lords,"  "  the  father  of  the  gods,"  "  the  creator," 
"the  mighty  prince,"  and  "the  just  prince  of  the 
gods."  He  plays  a  leading  part  in  the  mythological 
legends,  which  form  so  curious  a  feature  in  the  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  religion.  In  the  "  History  of 
Creation "  we  are  told  that  Bel  made  the  earth  and 
the  heaven ;  that  he  formed  man  by  means  of  a  mix- 
ture of  his  own  blood  with  earth,  and  also  formed 
beasts ;  and  that  afterwards  he  created  the  sun  and 
the  moon,  the  stars,  and  the  five  planets.1  In  the 
"  War  of  the  Gods,"  we  find  him  contending  with 
the  great  dragon,  Tiamat,  and  after  a  terrible  single 
combat  destroying  her  by  flinging  a  thunderbolt  into 
her  open  mouth.2  He  also,  in  conjunction  with  Hoa; 
plans  the  defence  when  the  seven  spirits  of  evil  rise 
in  rebellion,  and  the  dwelling-place  of  the  gods  is 
assaulted  by  them.3  The  titles  of  Bel  generally  ex- 
press dominion.  He  is  "  the  lord,"  par  excellence, 
which  is  the  exact  meaning  of  his  name  in  Assyrian  ; 
he  is  "  the  king  of  all  the  spirits,"  "  the  lord  of  the 
world,"  and  again,  "  the  lord  of  all  the  countries." 
Babylon  and  Nineveh  are,  both  of  them,  under  his 
special  care ;  Nineveh  having  the  title  of  "  the  city 
of  Bel,"  in  some  passages  of  the  inscriptions.  The 
chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Bel  in  Babylonia  was 
Nipur,  now  Niifer,  and  in  Assyria,  Calah,  now  Xim- 
rud.     He  had  also  a  temple  at  Duraba  (Akkerkuf ). 

1  Berosus  ap.  Euseb.  "  Chron.  Can."  i.  3. 

2  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  ix.  pp.  137-139. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  v.  p.  164. 


44  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Hea  or  Hoa,  the  third  god  of  the  first  triad,  ranks 
immediately  after  Bel  in  the  complete  lists  of  As- 
syrian deities.  He  is  emphatically  one  of  the  "great 
gods,"  and  is  called,  "  the  king,"  "  the  great  inven- 
tor," and  "  the  determiner  of  destinies."  We  have 
already  remarked  that  he  was  specially  connected 
with  the  element  of  water;  and  hence  he  is  "the 
king  of  the  deep,"  "  the  king  of  rivers,"  "  the  lord 
of  fountains,"  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  "  the  lord  of 
the  harvest."  In  the  legend  of  creation  he  is  joined 
with  Bel,  in  the  office  of  guardian,  and  watches  over 
the  regularity  of  the  planetary  courses.1  In  the 
"  War  of  the  Gods,"  he  and  Bel  plan  the  defence, 
after  which  Hea  commits  the  executions  of  the  plans 
made  to  his  son,  Marduk  or  Merodach.2  In  the 
flood  legend,  Hea  naturally  plays  an  important  part. 
It  is  he  who  announces  to  Hasis-adra,  the  Babylonian 
Noah,  that  a  deluge  is  about  to  destroy  mankind, 
and  commands  him  to  build  a  great  ship,  in  order 
that  he  may  escape  it.3  It  is  he  again  who  opposes 
the  wish  of  Bel  to  make  the  destruction  complete, 
and  persuades  him  to  let  Hasis-adra  and  his  family 
come  out  safe  from  the  ark.4  In  the  tale  of  Ishtar's 
descent  into  Hades,  Hea's  counsel  is  sought  by  the 
moon-god;  and  by  a  skilful  device  he  obtains  the 
restoration  of  the  Queen  of  Love  to  the  upper 
world.5  Indeed,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  my- 
thology we  find  all  clever  inventions  and  well-laid 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  ix.  p.  118.- 
2  Ibid.  vol.  v.  p.  165.  s  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  pp.  135,  130. 

*  Ibid.  p.  142.  &  Ibid.  vol.  i.  pp.  147-149. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      45 

plans  ascribed  to  him,  so  that  his  history  quite  justi- 
fies his  title  of  "lord  of  deep  thoughts."  Hea  is 
probably  intended  by  the  Oe  of  Helladius,1  and  the 
Cannes  of  Berosus,2  who  came  up  out  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  instructed  the  first  settlers  on  the  Lower 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  in  letters,  science,  religion,  law, 
and  agriculture. 

In  direct  succession  to  the  three  gods  of  the  first  j 
triad,  Anu,  Bel,  and  Hea  or  Hoa,  we  find  a  second  I 
still  more  widely  recognised  triad,  comprising  the 
moon-god,  the  sun-god,  and  the  god  of  the  at- 
mosphere. There  is  great  difference  of  opinion  with 
respect  to  the  name  of  the  last  god  of  these  three, 
which  is  never  spelt  phonetically  in  the  inscriptions, 
but  only  represented  by  a  monogram.  He  has  been 
called  Iva  (or  Yav),  Vul,  Bin,  Yem  (or  Im),  and 
recently  Rimmon.3  Without  presuming  to  decide 
this  vexed  question,  we  propose  to  adopt  provision- 
ally the  rendering  "Vul,"  as  the  one  likely  to  be 
most  familiar  to  our  readers,  from  its  employment 
by  Sir  Henry  Eawlinson,  Mr.  George  Smith,  and 
Mr.  Fox  Talbot.  We  shall  speak  therefore  of  the 
second  triad  as  one  consisting  of  Sin,  Shamas,  and 
Vul,  the  gods  respectively  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  and 
the  atmosphere. 

It  is  very  noticeable  that  in  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia the  moon-god  took  precedence  of  the  sun-god. 

i  Ap.  Phot.  "Bibliotkec  "  cclxxxix.  p.  1594. 

2  Berosus  ap.  Euseb.  "  Chron.  Can."  1.  s.  c. 

3  "Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology,"  vol.  v. 
p.  441 ;  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  29  ;  vol.  vii.  pp.  165, 
170 ;  vol.  ix.  pp.  23,  27,  etc. 


46  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Night  probably  was  more  agreeable  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  those  hot  regions  than  day ;  and  the  cool, 
placid  time  when  they  could  freely  contemplate  the 
heavens,  and  make  their  stellar  and  other  obser- 
vations, was  especially  grateful  to  the  priestly  astro- 
nomers who  had  the  superintendence  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  religion.  Sin,  the  moon,  is  thus  one  of 
the  leading  deities.  He  is  called,  "  the  chief  of  the 
gods  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  the  king  of  the  gods," 
and  even  "the  god  of  the  gods."1  These  seem, 
however,  to  be  hyperbolical  expressions,  used  by  his 
votaries  in  the  warmth  of  their  hearts,  when  in  the 
stage  of  religion  which  Professor  Max  Muller  has 
designated  "  Henotheism." 2  Sin  more  properly  was 
"the  brilliant,"  "the  illuminator,"  "he  who  dwells 
in  the  sacred  heavens,"  "  he  who  circles  round  the 
heavens,"  and  "  the  lord  of  the  month."  Again,  for 
some  recondite  reason,  which  is  not  explained,  he  was 
selected  to  preside  over  architecture,  and  in  this  con- 
nection he  is  "the  supporting  architect,"  "the 
strengthener  of  fortifications,"  and,  more  generally, 
"the  lord  of  building." 

A  close  bond  of  sympathy  united  Sin  with  the 
two  other  members  of  the  second  triad.  When  the 
seven  spirits  of  evil  made  war  in  heaven,  and  direct- 
ed their  main  attack  upon  Sin,  as  the  chief  leader  of 
the  angelic  host,  Shamas  and  Vul  instantly  came  to 
his  aid,  withstood  the  spirits,  and,   fighting  firmly 

i  In  the  Inscription  of  Nabonidus.  (See  "Records  of  the  Past," 
vol.  v.  pp.  146,  147.) 

2  "Contemporary  Review,"  Nov.  1878,  pp.  722. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      47 

side  by  side  with  him,  succeeded  in  repulsing  them.1 
The  three  are  frequently  conjoined  in  invocations, 
execrations,  and  the  like.2  In  offerings  and  festivals, 
however,  Sin  is  united  with  Shamas  only,  the  place 
of  Vul  being  taken  by  a  goddess  who  is  entitled 
"  the  divine  mistress  of  the  world." 3 

Sin  was  among  the  gods  most  widely  and  devoutly 
worshipped,  both  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  He 
had  temples  at  Ur,  Babylon,  Borsippa, 
Calah,  and  Dur-Sargina.  The  third 
month  of  the  year,  called  Si  van,  was 
dedicated  to  him.  In  a  month  not  so 
dedicated  we  find  sacrifice  to  the  moon 
prescribed  on  nine  days  out  of  the  thirty.4 
His  name  was  widely  used  as  an  element 
in  royal  and  other  appellations,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  well-known  name,  Sennacherib, 
which  in  the  original  is  Sin-akhi-irib,  or  "  Sin  has 
multiplied  brothers." 

Shamas,  the  sun-god,  occupies  the  middle  position 
in  the  second  triad,  which  is  either  "  Sin,  Shamas, 
Vul,"  or  "Vul,  Shamas,  Sin,"  though  more  com- 
monly the  former.  His  titles  are  either  general  or 
special.  In  a  general  way  he  is  called,  "  the  estab- 
lisher  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "the  judge  of  heaven 

1  See  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  pp.  164-166. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  i.  pp.  57,  93,  etc. ;  vol.  v.  pp.  7,  122,  123 ;  vol.  ix. 
pp.  23,  100,  etc. 

8  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  pp.  159,  162,  etc. 

4  See  the  calendar  referred  to  in  the  last  note,  where  sacrifices 
to  Sin  are  prescribed  for  the  1st,  2nd,  13th,  14th,  18th,  20th, 
21st,  22nd,  and  29th  days  of  the  month. 


48  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

and  earth/'  "the  warrior  of  the  world/' and  "the 
regent  of  all  things/'  while,  with  direct  reference  to 
his  physical  nature,  he  is  "  the  lord  of  fire,"  "  the 
light  of  the  gods,"  "  the  ruler  of  the  day,"  and  "  he 
who  illumines  the  expanse  of  heaven  and  earth." 

The  kings  regard  him  as  affording  them  especial 
help  in  war.  He  is  "  the  supreme  ruler,  who  casts  a 
favorable  eye  on  expeditions,"  the  "  vanquisher  of 
the  king's  enemies,"  "  the  breaker-up  of  opposition." 
He  "  casts  his  motive  influence  "  over  the  monarchs, 
and  causes  them  to  "assemble  their  chariots  and 
their  warriors,"  he  "  goes  forth  with  their  armies," 
and  enables  them  to  extend  their  dominions;  he 
chases  their  enemies  before  them,  causes  opposition 
to  cease,  and  brings  them  back  with  victory  to  their 
own  country. 

Besides  this,  in  time  of  peace,  he  helps  them  to 
sway  the  sceptre  of  power,  and  to  rule  over  their 
subjects  with  authority.  It  seems  that,  from  observ- 
ing the  manifest  agency  of  the  material  sun  in  stim- 
ulating all  the  functions  of  nature,  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  sun-god 
exerted  a  similar  influence  over  the  minds  of  men, 
and  was  the  great  motive  agent  in  human  history.1 

The  worship  of  Shamas  was  universal.  The  sev- 
enth month,  Tisri,  was  dedicated  to  him,  and  in  the 
second  Elul,  he  had,  like  the  moon-god,  nine  festi- 
vals. His  emblem  appears  upon  almost  all  the 
religious  cylinders,  and  in  almost  all  lists  of  the  gods 
his  name  holds  a  high  place.  Sometimes  he  is  a 
i  4i  Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  160. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      49 

member  of  a  leading  triad,  composed  of  himself 
together  with  Sin  and  Asshnr.1  In  the  mythological 
legends  he  is  not  very  frequently  mentioned.  We 
find  him,  however,  defending  the  moon-god,  in  con- 
junction with  Yul,  when  the  seven  spirits  make 
their  assault  upon  heaven  ; 2  and  in  the  deluge  tablets 
we  are  told  that  it  was  he  wTho  actually  made  the 
Flood.3  But  otherwise  the  mythology  is  silent  about 
him,  offering  in  this  respect  a  remarkable  contrast  to 
the  Egyptian,  where  the  sun  is  the  principal  figure. 
Vul,  the  god  of  the  atmosphere,  who  completes 
the  second  triad,  has,  on  the  whole,  a  position  quite 
equal  to  that  of  Sin  and  Shamas,  whom  he  occasion- 
ally even  precedes  in  the  lists.4  Some  kings  seem  to 
place  him  on  a  par  with  Anu,  or  with  Asshur,  rec- 
ognising Anu  and  Yul,  or  Asshur  and  Yul,  as 
especially  "  the  great  gods,"  and  as  their  own  peculiar 
guardians.5  In  a  general  way  he  corresponds  with 
the  "Jupiter  Tonans"  of  the  Romans,  being  the 
"prince  of  the  power  of  the  air,"  the  lord  of  the 
whirlwind  and  the  tempest,  and  the  wielder  of  the 
thunderbolt.  His  most  common  titles  are  "the 
minister  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  the  lord  of  the  air," 
and  "  he  who  makes  the  tempest  to  rage."  He  is 
regarded  as  the  destroyer  of  crops,  the  rooter-up  of 

1  This  is  the  position  which  he  holds  regularly  in  the  Inscrip- 
tions of  Asshurbanipal,  the  son  of  Esarhaddon.  (See  "Records 
of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  pp.  58,  71,  77,  93-5,  99,  100,  103,  etc.). 

2  See  above,  p.  43. 

a  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  p.  138. 
*  Ibid.  vol.  ix.  p.  100. 
6  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  p.  46 ;  vol.  v.  pp.  24-26. 
4 


50 


The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 


VUL. 


trees,  the  scatterer  of  the  harvest ;  famine,  scarcity, 
and  even  their  consequence,  pestilence,  are  assigned 
to  him.  He  is  said  to  have  in  his 
hand  a  "  flaming  sword,"  with  which 
he  effects  his  ravages;  and  this 
"flaming  swoid,"  which  probably 
represents  lightning,  seems  to  form 
his  emblem  on  the  tablets  and  cylin- 
ders, where  it  is  figured  as  a  double 
or  triple  bolt.  But  Yul  has  also  a 
softer  character;  as  the  god  of  the 
atmosphere  he  gives  the  rain;  and 
hence  he  is  "  the  careful  and  benefi- 
cent chief,"  "the  giver  of  abun- 
dance," and  "the  lord  of  fecundity."  In  this  capac- 
ity, he  is  naturally  chosen  to  preside  over  canals,  the 
great  fertilisers  in  Mesopotamia;  and  thus  we  find 
among  his  titles,  "the  lord  of  canals,"  and  "the 
establisher  of  works  of  irrigation." l 

To  the  eight  "  great  gods,"  whose  functions  have 
been  here  described,  may  be  added  most  conveniently 
in  this  place,  six  goddesses.  It  was  a  general,  though 
not  a  universal  rule,  in  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
mythology,  that  each  god  should  have  a  wife.  From 
this  law  the  heads  of  the  respective  pantheons,  II 
and  Asshur,*  were  exempt;2  but  otherwise  almost  all 

1  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  pp.  164,  165. 

2  In  one  place  I  observe  a  mention  of  a  "goddess  Assuritu" 
("  Records,"  vol.  i.  p.  60),  who  might  seem  to  be  a  feminine  form 
of  Asshur.  But  the  original  reads,  "  Asshur  va  Ishtar  Assuritu," 
which  shows  Assuritu  to  be  a  mere  title  of  Ishtar.  (See  G. 
Smith's  "Annals  of  Asshurbanipal,"  p.  17.) 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      51 

the  principal  deities  are  united  in  pairs,  one  of  whom 
is  male  and  the  other  female.  Anu  has  a  wife  called 
Anata  or  Anat,  who  is  a  pale  and  shadowy  person- 
age, the  mere  faint  reflex  of  her  husband  whose 
name  she  receives,  merely  modified  by  a  feminine 
inflection.  Bil  or  Bel  has  a  wife,  Bilat,  known  to 
the  classical  writers  as  Beltis  or  Mylitta,1  a  term 
standing  to  Bil  as  Anat  to  Anu,  but  designating  a 
far  more  substantial  being.  Beltis  is  "  the  mother  of 
the  gods,"  "the  great  goddess,"  "the  great  lady," 
"  the  queen  of  the  lands,"  and  "  the  queen  of  fecun- 
dity." She  corresponds  to  the  Cybele  of  the  Phry- 
gians, the  Rhea  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  "Magna 
Mater  "  or  "  Bona  Dea  "  of  the  Romans.  Occasion- 
ally, she  adds  to  this  character  the  attributes  of  Bel- 
lona  and  even  Diana,  being  spoken  of  as  presiding 
over  war  and  hunting.  The  wife  of  Hoa  has  been 
called  Dav-kina;  but  the  first  element  of  the  name 
seems  now  to  be  read  more  generally  as  Nin,  while 
the  second  is  rendered  by  azu.2  Ninazu  is  said  to 
have  been  "queen  of  Hades"  and  "the  lady  of  the 
house  of  Death."3  Her  special  office  was  to  watch 
and  soothe  the  last  hours  of  the  dying.4  To  the  wife 
of  Sin  no  proper  name  is  given ;  but  she  is  frequently 
associated  with  her  husband  under  the  appellation  of 
"  the  great  lady."     The  wife  of  Shamas  is  Gula  or 

1  Herod.  L  131,  199;  Hesychius  ad.voc.  Brjldrj^. 

2  "  Records  of  the  Past,"    vol.  ix.  pp.   131,   132.     Professor 
Sayce  reads  the  name  as  Ninkigal  [Ibid.  p.  146). 

3  See  Professor  Sayce' s  note  on  the  passage  last  quoted. 

4  "Records,"  vol.  v.  p.  146.     Compare  vol.  iii.  p.  141. 


52 


The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 


Anunit,  who  was,  like  Beltis,  a  "  great  goddess/'  but 
had  a  less  distinctive  character,  being  little  more  than 
a  female  Sun.  Finally,  Vul  had  a  wife  called  Shala 
or  Tala,  whose  common  title  is  sarrat,  "  Queen,"  but 
who  is  a  colourless  and  insignificant  personage. 

On  the  second  of  the  two  great  triads  which  hold 
so  high  a  place  in  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
pantheons,  there  follows  a  group  of  five  gods,  with 
an  unmistakably  astral  character.  These  are  Nin  or 
Bar,  Merodach  or  Marduk,  Nergal,  Ishtar,  and  Xebo, 
who  correspond  respectively  to  the  planets,  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  Mars,  Venus,  and  Mercury. 


NIN. 


Nin,  or  Bar,  who  presided  over  the  most  distant 
of  the  visible  planets,  Saturn,  was  more  an  object  of 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      53 

worship  in  Assyria  than  in  Babylonia.  He  has  been 
called  "the  Assyrian  Hercules/'1  and  in  many 
respects  resembles  that  hero  of  the  classical  nations. 
Among  his  titles  are  found,  "  the  lord  of  the  brave," 
"  the  warlike/'  "  the  champion/'  "  the  warrior  who 
subdues  foes,"  "  the  reducer  of  the  disobedient,"  "  the 
exterminator  of  rebels,"  "  the  powerful  lord,"  "  the 
exceeding  strong  god,"  and  "he  whose  sword  is 
good."  He  presides  in  a  great  measure  both  over 
war  and  hunting.  Most  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
represent  themselves  as  going  out  to  war  under  his 
auspices,  and  ascribe  their  successes  mainly  to  his 
interposition.  He  is  especially  useful  to  them  in  the 
subjection  of  rebels.  He  also  on  some  occasions  in- 
cites them  to  engage  in  the  chase,  and  aids  them 
strenuously  in  their  encounters  with  wild  bulls  and 
lions.2  It  is  thought  that  he  was  emblematically 
portrayed  in  the  winged  and  human-headed  bull, 
which  forms  so  striking  a  feature  in  the  architectural 
erections  of  the  Assyrians. 

As  Nin  was  a  favourite  Assyrian,  so  Merodach  was 
a  favorite  Babylonian  god.  From  the  earliest  times 
the  Babylonian  monarchs  placed  him  in  the  highest 
rank  of  deities,  worshipping  him  in  conjunction  with 
Anu,  Bel,  and  Hea,  the  three  gods  of  the  first  triad.3 
The  great  temple  of  Babylon,  known  to  the  Greeks 

1  Layard,  "Nineveh  and  Babylon,"  p.  214;  "Records  of  the 
Past,"  vol.  v.  pp.  7,  21,  23,  etc. 

2  See  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  21. 

3  See  the  Inscription  of  Agu-kak-rimi,  published  in  the  "Rec- 
ords of  the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  p.  3,  lines  5  and  6. 


54  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

as  the  Temple  of  Bel/  was  certainly  dedicated  to 
him;  and  it  would  therefore  seem  that  the  later 
Babylonians,  at  any  rate,  must  have  habitually  ap- 
plied to  him  the  name  of  Bel,  or  "  lord,"  which  in 
earlier  times  had  designated  a  different  member  of 
their  pantheon.  Merodach's  ordinary  titles  are, 
"  the  great,"  "  the  great  lord,"  "  the  prince,"  "  the 
prince  of  the  gods,"  and  "  the  august  god."  He  is 
also  called,  "the  judge,"  "the  most  ancient,"  "he 
who  judges  the  gods,"  "  the  eldest  son  of  heaven," 
and  in  one  place,  "  the  lord  of  battles." 2  Occasion- 
ally, he  has  still  higher  and  seemingly  exclusive 
designations,  such  as,  "  the  great  lord  of  eternity," 
"the  king  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "the  lord  of  all 
beings,"  "  the  chief  of  the  gods,"  and  "  the  god  of 
gods."  3  But  these  titles  seem  not  to  be  meant  ex- 
clusively. He  is  held  in  considerable  honour  among 
the  Assyrians,  being  often  coupled  with  Asshur,4  or 
with  Asshur  and  Nebo,5  as  a  war-god,  one  by  whom 
the  kings  gain  victories,  and  obtain  the  destruction 
of  their  enemies.  But  it  is  in  Babylonia,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  later  Babylonian  Empire  under  Nebu- 
chadnezzar and  Neriglissar,  that  his  worship  cul- 
minates. It  is  then  that  all  the  epithets  of  highest 
honour  are  accumulated  upon  him,  and  that  he  be- 

1  Herod,  i.  181-183 ;  Strab.  xvi.  p.  1049  ;  Arrian,  "Exp.  Alex." 
vii.  17. 

2  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  29. 

»  Ibid.  vol.  v.  pp.  112,  119,  122;  vol.  ix.  pp.  96,  106. 
4  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  p.  20;  vol.  iii.  pp.  53,  55;  vol. 
v.  p.  41 ;  vol,  x.  p.  53,  etc. 

6  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  pp.  25,  27,  45,  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      55 

comes  an  almost  exclusive  object  of  worship;  it  is 
then  that  we  find  such  expressions  as :  "I  suppli- 
cated the  king  of  gods,  the  lord  of  lords,  in  Bor- 
sippa,  the  city  of  his  loftiness/' l  and  "  O  god 
Merodach,  great  lord,  lord  of  the  house  of  the  gods, 
light  of  the  gods,  father,  even  for  thy  high  honor, 
which  changeth  not,  a  temple  have  I  built." 2 

In  his  stellar  character,  Merodach  represented  the 
planet  Jupiter,  with  which  he  was  supposed  to  have 
a  very  intimate  connection.  The  eighth  month 
(Marchesvan)  was  dedicated  to  him.3  In  the  second 
Elul  he  had  three  festivals — on  the  third,  on  the 
seventh,  and  on  the  sixteenth  day.4 

Nergal,  who  presided  over  the  planet  Mars,  was 
essentially  a  war-god.  His  name  signifies  "the 
great  man,"  or  the  "  great  hero ; " 5  and  his  com- 
monest titles  are  "  the  mighty  hero,"  "  the  king  of 
battle,"  "the  destroyer,"  "the  champion  of  the 
gods,"  and  "  the  great  brother."  He  "  goes  before  " 
the  kings  in  their  warlike  expeditions,  and  helps 
them  to  confound  and  destroy  their  enemies.  Nor 
is  he  above  lending  them  his  assistance  when  they 
indulge  in  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  One  of  his 
titles  is  "  the  god  of  hunting," 6  and  while  originally 
subordinated  to  Nin  in  this  relation,  ultimately  he 
outstrips  his  rival,  and  becomes  the  especial  patron 
of  hunters  and  sportsmen.     Asshur-bani-pal,  who 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  120.  2  Ibid.  p.  142. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  p.  169.  4  Ibid.  pp.  159,  100  and  1G3. 

5  Sir  Rawlinson  in  the  Author's  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  p.  655. 

6  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  the  Author's  "  Herodotus,"  1.  s.  c. 


56  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

is  conspicuous  among  the  Assyrian  kings  for  his  in- 
tense love  of  field  sports,  uniformly  ascribes  his  suc- 
cesses to  Nergal,  and  does  not  even  join  with  him 
any  other  deity.  NergaPs  emblem  was  the  human- 
headed  and  winged  lion,  which  is  usually  seen,  as  it 
were  on  guard,  at  the  entrance  of  the  royal  palaces. 


NERGAL. 

Ishtar,  who  was  called  Nana  by  the  Babylonians,1 
corresponded  both  in  name  and  attributes  with  the 
Astarte  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Syrians.  Like  the 
Greek  Aphrodite  and  the  Latin  Venus,  she  was  the 
Queen  of  Love  and  Beauty,  the  goddess  who  presided 
over  the  loves  both  of  men  and  animals,  and  whose 

1  ""Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii  pp.  7,  10,  11,  13,  14.  etc.; 
Vol.  v.  pp.  72,  83,  102,  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      57 

own  amours  were  notorious.  In  one  of  the  Izdubar 
legends,  she  courts  that  romantic  individual,  who 
however,  declines  her  advances,  reminding  her  that 
her  favour  had  always  proved  fatal  to  those  persons 
on  whom  she  had  previously  bestowed  her  affections.1 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  Babylon,  at  any 
rate,  she  was  worshipped  with  unchaste  rites,2  and 
that  her  cult  was  thus  of  a  corrupting  and  debasing 
character.  But  besides  and  beyond  this  soft  and 
sensual  aspect,  Ishtar  had  a  further  and  nobler  one. 
She  corresponded,  not  to  Venus  only,  but  also  to 
Bellona;  being  called  "the  goddess  of  war  and 
battle,"  "  the  queen  of  victory,"  "  she  who  arranges 
battles,"  and  "  she  who  defends  from  attack."  The 
Assyrian  kings  very  generally  unite  her  with  Asshur, 
in  the  accounts  which  they  give  of  their  expeditions;3 
speaking  of  their  forces  as  those  which  Asshur  and 
Ishtar  had  committed  to  their  charge ;  of  their  battles 
as  fought  in  the  service  of  Asshur  and  Ishtar  and 
of  their  triumphs  as  the  result  of  Asshur  and  Ishtar 
exalting  them  above  their  enemies.  Ishtar  had  also 
some  general  titles  of  a  lofty  but  vague  character ;  she 
was  called,  "  the  fortunate,"  "  the  happy,"  "  the  great 
goddess,"  "  the  mistress  of  heaven  and  earth,"  and 
"  the  queen  of  all  the  gods  and  goddesses."  In  her 
stellar  aspect,  she  presided  over  the  planet  Venus ; 
and  the  sixth  month,  Elul,  was  dedicated  to  her.4 
Nebo,  the  last  of  the  five  planetary  deities,  presided 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  ix.  pp.  125-128. 

2  See  Herod,  i.  199;  of  Baruch  vi.  43,  and  Strabo,  xvi.  p.  1058. 

3  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  pp.  69-86  ;  vol.  iii.  p.  45,  etc. 
*  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  p.  169. 


58  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

over  Mercury.  It  was  his  special  function  to  have 
under  his  charge  learning  and  knowledge.  He  is 
called  "  the  god  who  possesses  intelligence,"  !  "  he 
who  hears  from  afar/'  "  he  who  teaches/'  and  "  he 
who  teaches  and  instructs."2  The  tablets  of  the 
royal  library  at  Nineveh  are  said  to  contain  "  the 
wisdom  of  Nebo." 3  He  is  also,  like  Mercury,  "  the 
minister  of  the  gods/'  though  scarcely  their  messen- 
ger, an  office  which  belongs  to  Paku.  At  the  same 
time,  as  has  often  been  remarked,4  Nebo  has,  like 
many  other  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  gods,  a 
number  of  general  titles,  implying  divine  power, 
which,  if  they  had  belonged  to  him  alone,  would 
have  seemed  to  prove  him  the  supreme  deity.  He  is 
"  the  lord  of  lords,  who  has  no  equal  in  power,"  "the 
supreme  chief,"  "the  sustainer,"  "the  supporter," 
"  the  ever  ready,"  "  the  guardian  of  heaven  and 
earth,"  "  the  lord  of  the  constellations,"  "  the  holder 
of  the  sceptre  of  power,"  "  he  who  grants  to  kings 
the  sceptre  of  royalty  for  the  governance  of  their 
people."  It  is  chiefly  by  his  omission  from  many 
lists,  and  by  his  humble  place,5  when  he  is  mentioned 
together  with  the  really  "  great  gods,"  that  we  are 
assured  of  his  occupying  a  (comparatively  speaking) 
low  position  in  the  general  pantheon. 

1  "Records  of  the  PasV  vol.  v.  pp.  113,  122,  etc. 

2  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  177. 

3  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  p.  58. 

4  Sir  IT.  Rawlinson  in  the  Authoi*'s  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  p.  661 ; 
"Ancient  Monarchies,"  1.  s.  c. 

6  Nebo's  place  varies  commonly  from  the  fifth  to  the  thirteenth, 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      59 

The  planetary  gods  had  in  most  instances  a  female 
complement.  Nebo  was  closely  associated  with  a 
goddess  called  Urmit  or  Tasmit,  Nergal  with  one 
called  Laz,  and  Merodach  with  Zirpanit  or  Zirbanit. 
Nin,  the  son  of  Bel  and  Beltis,  is  sometimes  made 
the  husband  of  his  mother/  but  otherwise  has  no 
female  counterpart.  Ishtar  is  sometimes  coupled 
with  Nebo  in  a  way  that  might  suggest  her  being  his 
wife,2  if  it  were  not  that  that  position  is  certainly  oc- 
cupied by  Urmit. 

Among  other  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  deities  may 
be  mentioned  Nusku,  a  god  assigned  a  high  rank  by 
Asshur-bani-pal ; 3  Makhir,  the  goddess  of  dreams,4 
Paku,  the  divine  messenger,5  Laguda,  the  god  of  a 
town  call  Kisik;6  Zamal,  Turda,  Ishkara,  Malik, 
deities  invoked  in  curses;7  Zicuin,  a  primeval  god- 
dess, said  to  be  "the  mother  of  Anu;  and  the  gods,"8 
Dakan,9  perhaps  Dagon,  Martu,  Zira,  Idak,  Kurrikh, 
etc.  Many  other  strange  names  also  occur,  but  either 
rarely,  or  in  a  connection  which  is  thought  to  indi- 
cate that  they  are  local  appellations  of  some  of  the 

and  is  generally  about  the  seventh.     Nebuchadnezzar,  however, 
puts  him  third.     ("Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  p.  122.) 

1  "  Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  169. 

2  "  Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  176. 

3  <<  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  pp.  57,  58,  71,  77,  94,  95,  etc. : 
vol.  ix.  pp.  45,  61,  etc. 

*  Ibid.  vol.  ix.  p.  152. 

5  Ibid.  vol.  v.  p.  165. 

6  Ibid.  vol.  ix.  pp.  3  and  15. 
'  Ibid.  p.  101. 

8  Ibid.  p.  146,  and  note. 

»  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  p.  40;  vol.  v.  p.  117 ;  vol.  vii.  pp.  11,  27,  etc. 


60  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World, 

well-known  deities.  No  more  need  be  said  of  these 
personages,  since  the  general  character  of  the  religion 
is  but  little  affected  by  the  belief  in  gods  who  played 
so  very  insignificant  a  part  in  the  system. 

The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  worshipped  their 
gods  in  shrines  or  chapels  of  no  very  great  size,  to 
which,  however,  was  frequently  attached  a  lofty 
tower,  built  in  stages,  which  were  sometimes  as  many 
as  seven.1  The  tower  could  be  ascended  by  steps  on 
the  outside,  and  was  usually  crowned  by  a  small 
chapel.  The  gods  were  represented  by  images,  which 
were  either  of  stone  or  metal,  and  which  bore  the 
human  form,  excepting  in  two  instances.  Nin  and 
Nergal  -were  portrayed,  as  the  Jews,  perhaps,  por- 
trayed their  cherubim,  by  animal  forms  of  great  size 
and  grandeur,  having  human  heads  and  huge  out- 
stretched wings.2  There  was  nothing  hideous  or  even 
grotesque  about  the  representations  of  the  Assyrian 
gods.  The  object  aimed  at  was  to  fill  the  spectator 
with  feelings  of  awe  and  reverence;  and  the  figures 
have,  in  fact,  universally,  an  appearance  of  calm 
placid  strength  and  majesty,  which  is  most  solemn 
and  impressive. 

The  gods  were  worshipped,  as  generally  in  the  an- 
cient world,  by  prayer,  praise,  and  sacrifice.  Prayer 
was  offered  both  for  oneself  and  for  others.  The 
"sinfulness  of  sin"  was  deeply  felt,  and  the  Divine 
anger  deprecated  with  much  earnestness.     "  O !  my 

1  As  at  Borsippa  (Birs-i-Nimrod),  where  a  portion  of  each  stage 
remains. 

*  Ezek.  x.  8-22. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      61 

Lord,"  says  one  suppliant,  "  my  sins  are  many,  my 
trespasses  are  great ;  and  the  wrath  of  the  gods  has 
plagued  me  with  disease,  and  sickness,  and  sorrow. 
I  fainted,  but  no  one  stretched  forth  his  hand;  I 
groaned,  but  no  one  drew  nigh.  I  cried  aloud,  but 
no  one  heard.  O  Lord,  do  not  Thou  abandon  thy 
servant.  In  the  waters  of  the  great  storm,  do 'Thou 
lay  hold  of  his  hand.  The  sins  which  he  has  com- 
mitted, do  Thou  turn  to  righteousness."1  Special 
intercession  was  made  for  the  Assyrian  kings.  The 
gods  were  besought  to  grant  them  "  length  of  days, 
a  strong  sword,  extended  years  of  glory,  pre-emi- 
nence among  monarchs,  and  an  enlargement  of  the 
bounds  of  their  empire." 2  It  is  thought  that  their 
happiness  in  a  future  state  was  also  prayed  for.3 
Praise  was  even  more  frequent  than  prayer.  The 
gods  were  addressed  under  their  various  titles,  and 
their  benefits  to  mankind  commemorated.  "  O  Fire ! " 
we  read  on  one  tablet,4  "  Great  Lord,  who  art  exalted 
above  all  the  earth  !  O !  noble  son  of  heaven,  exalted 
above  all  the  earth.  O  Fire,  with,  thy  bright  flame, 
thou  dost  produce  light  in  the  dark  house !  Of  all 
things  that  can  be  named,  thou  dost  create  the  fabric; 
of  bronze  and  of  lead,  thou  art  the  melter;  of  silver 
and  of  gold,  thou  art  the  refiner;  of  .  .  .  thou  art 
the  purifier.     Of  the  wicked  man,  in  the  night-time, 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii.  p.  136. 

2  Ibid.  p.  133. 

3  Fox  Talbot  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archoeology,"  vol.  i.  p.  107. 

*  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  137,  133. 


62  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

thou  dost  repel  the  assault;  but  the  man  who  serves 
his  God,  thou  wilt  give  him  light  for  his  actions." 
Sacrifice  almost  always  accompanied  prayer  and 
praise.  Every  day  in  the  year  seems  to  have  been 
sacred  to  some  deity  or  deities,  and  some  sacrifice  or 
other  was  offered  every  day  by  the  monarch,1  who 
thus  Set  an  example  to  his  subjects,  which  we  may 
be  sure  they  were  not  slow  to  "follow.  The  principal 
sacrificial  animals  were  bulls,  oxen,  sheep,  and  ga- 
zelles.2 Libations  of  wine  were  also  a  part  of  the 
recognised  worship,3  and  offerings  might  be  made  of 
anything  valuable. 

It  is  an  interesting  question  how  far  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians  entertained  any  confident  expect- 
ation of  a  future  life,  and,  if  so,  what  view  they  took 
of  it.  That  the  idea  did  not  occupy  a  prominent 
place  in  their  minds  ;  that  there  was  a  contrast  in  this 
respect  between  them  and  the  people  of  Egypt,  is 
palpable  from  the  very  small  number  of  passages  in 
which  anything  like  an  allusion  to  a  future  state  of 
existence  has  been  detected.  Still,  there  certainly 
seem  to  be  places  in  which  the  continued  existence  of 
the  dead  is  spoken  of,  and  where  the  happiness  of  the 
good  and  the  wretchedness  of  the  wicked  in  the 
future  state  are  indicated.  It  has  been  already 
noticed,  that  in  one  passage  the  happiness  of  the  king 
in  another  world  seems  to  be  prayed  for.     In  two  or 

1  See  the  fragment  of  a  Calendar  published  in  the  "  Records  of 
the  Past,"  vol.  vii.  pp.  159-168. 

2  Ibid.  pp.  137,  159,  and  161;  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol  ii. 
p.  271. 

8  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol,  iii.  p.  124;  vol.  vii.  p.  140. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      63 

three  others,  prayer  is  offered  for  a  departing  soul  in 
terms  like  the  following  :  "  May  the  sun  give  him 
life,  and  Merodach  grant  him  an  abode  of  hap- 
piness," 1  or,  "  To  the  sun,  the  greatest  of  the  gods, 
may  he  ascend  ;  and  may  the  sun,  the  greatest  of  the 
gods,  receive  his  soul  into  his  holy  hands."2  The 
nature  of  the  happiness  enjoyed  may  be  gathered 
from  occasional  notices,  where  the  soul  is  represented 
as  clad  in  a  white  radiant  garment,3  as  dwelling  in 
the  presence  of  the  gods,  and  as  partaking  of  celestial 
food  in  the  abode  of  blessedness.  On  the  other  hand, 
Hades,  the  receptacle  of  the  wicked  after  death,  is 
spoken  of  as  "  the  abode  of  darkness  and  famine," 
the  place  "where  earth  is  men's  food,  and  their 
nourishment  clay ;  where  light  is  not  seen,  but  in 
darkness  they  dwell ; ,  where  ghosts,  like  birds,  flutter 
their  wings,  and  on  the  door  and  the  doorposts  the 
dust  lies  undisturbed." 4  Different  degrees  of  sinful- 
ness seem  to  meet  with  different  and  appropriate 
punishments.  There  is  one  place — apparently,  a 
penal  fire — reserved  for  unfaithful  wives  and  hus- 
bands, and  for  youths  who  have  dishonored  their 
bodies.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  M.  Lenormant 
was  mistaken  when  he  said,  that,  though  the  As- 
syrians recognised  a  place  of  departed  spirits,  yet  it 

1  "Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,"  vol.  ii. 
p.  32. 

2  Ibid.  p.  31. 

3  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  iii.  p.  135. 
*  "Transactions,"  etc.,  vol.  i.  p.  113. 


64  The  Religions  of  the  Aneient  World. 

was  one  "  in  which  there  was  no  trace  of  a  distinc- 
tion of  rewards  and  punishments."  l 

The  superstitions  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
were  numerous  and  strange.  They  believed  in  charms 
of  various  kinds;2  in  omens,3  in  astrology,  in  spells, 
and  in  a  miraculous  power  inherent  in  an  object 
which  they  called  "  the  Mamit."  What  the  Mamit 
was  is  quite  uncertain.4  According  to  the  native 
belief,  it  had  descended  from  heaven,  and  was  a 
"  treasure,"  a  "  priceless  jewel,'7  infinitely  more 
valuable  than  anything  else  upon  the  earth.  It 
was  ordinarily  kept  in  a  temple,  but  was  sometimes 
brought  to  the  bedside  of  a  sick  person,  with  the 
object  of  driving  out  the  evil  spirits  to  whom  his 
disease  was  owing,  and  of  so  recovering  him. 

Among  the  sacred  legends  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable. 
They  believed  that  at  a  remote  date,  before  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  there  had  been  war  in  heaven. 
Seven  spirits,  created  by  Aim  to  be  his  messen- 
gers, took  counsel  together  and  resolved  to  revolt. 
"  Against  high  heaven,  the  dwelling-place  of  Ami 
the  king,  they  plotted  evil,"  and  unexpectedly  made 

i  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  p.  143. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  p.  142. 

3  Among  the  remains  of  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  literature  are 
tables  of  omens  derived  from  dreams,  from  births,  from  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  hand,  or  of  the  entrails  of  animals,  and  from  the 
objects  a  traveller  meets  with  on  his  journey.  Dogs  alone  furnish 
eighteen  omens  (Ibid.,  vol.  v.  pp.  169-170). 

4  See  a  paper  by  Mr.  Fox  Talbot  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  35-42. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      65 

a  fierce  attack.  The  moon,  the  sun,  and  Vul,  the 
god  of  the  atmosphere,  withstood  them,  and  after  a 
fearful  struggle  beat  them  off.1  There  was  then 
peace  for  a  while.  But  once  more,  at  a  later  date,  a 
fresh  revolt  broke  out.  The  hosts  of  heaven  were 
assembled  together,  in  number  five  thousand,  and 
were  engaged  in  singing  a  psalm  of  praise  to  Anu, 
when  suddenly  discord  arose.  "  With  a  loud  cry  of 
contempt "  a  portion  of  the  angelic  choir  "broke  up 
the  holy  song,"  uttering  wicked  blasphemies,  and 
so  "  spoiling,  confusing,  confounding  the  hymn  of 
praise."  Asshur  was  asked  to  put  himself  at  their 
head,  but  "  refused  to  go  forth  with  them."  2  Their 
leader,  who  is  unnamed,  took  the  form  of  a  dragon, 
and  in  that  shape  contended  Avith  the  god  Bel,  who 
proved  victorious  in  the  combat,  and  slew  his  ad- 
versary by  means  of  a  thunderbolt,  which  he  flung 
into  the  creature's  open  mouth.3  Upon  this,  the 
entire  host  of  the  wicked  angels  took  to  flight,  and 
was  driven  to  the  abode  of  the  seven  spirits  of  evil, 
where  they  were  forced  to  remain,  their  return  to 
heaven  being  prohibited.  In  their  room  man  was 
created.4 

The  Chaldsean  legend  of  creation,  according  to 
Berosus,  was  as  follows  : — 

"  In  the  beginning  all  was  darkness  and  water, 
and   therein  were  generated   monstrous  animals  of 

1  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  v.  pp.  163-166. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  pp.  127,  128. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  ix.  pp.  137-139. 
*  Ibid.  vol.  vii.  p.  127. 

6 


66  Tlic  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

strange  and  peculiar  forms.  There  were  men  with 
two  wings,  and  some  even  with  four,  and  with  two 
faces;  and  others  with  two  heads,  a  man's  and  a  wo- 
man's, on  one  body ;  and  there  were  men  with  the 
heads  and  horns  of  goats,  and  men  with  hoofs  like 
horses;  and  some  with  the  upper  parts  of  a  man 
joined  to  the  lower  parts  of  a  horse,  like  centaurs; 
and  there  were  bulls  with  human  heads,  dogs  with 
four  bodies  and  with  fishes'  tails;  men  and  horses 
with  dogs'  heads ;  creatures  with  the  heads  and 
bodies  of  horses,  but  with  the  tails  of  fish; 
and  other  animals  mixing  the  forms  of  various 
beasts.  Moreover,  there  were  monstrous  fishes  and 
reptiles  and  serpents,  and  divers  other  creatures, 
which  had  borrowed  something  from  each  other's 
shapes,  of  all  which  the  likenesses  are  still  preserved 
in  the  temple  of  Belus.  A  woman  ruled  them  all, 
by  name  Omorka,  which  is  in  Chaldee  Thalath,  and 
in  Greek  Thalassa  (or  <  the  sea').  Then  Belus  ap- 
peared, and  split  the  woman  in  twain ;  and  of  the 
one  half  of  her  he  made  the  heaven,  and  of  the  other 
half  the  earth ;  and  the  beasts  that  were  in  her  he 
caused  to  perish.  And  he  split  the  darkness,  and  di- 
vided the  heaven  and  the  earth  asunder,  and  put  the 
world  in  order,  and  the  animals  that  could  not  bear 
the  light  perished.  Belus,  upon  this,  seeing  that  the 
earth  was  desolate,  yet  teeming  with  productive  pow- 
ers, commanded  one  of  the  gods  to  cut  off  his  head, 
and  to  mix  the  blood  which  flowed  forth  with  earth, 
and  form  men  therewith,  and  beasts  that  could  bear 
the  light.     So  man   was  made,  and  was  intelligent, 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      67 

being  a  partaker  of  the  Divine  wisdom.  Likewise 
Belus  made  the  stars,  and  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
and  the  five  planets."1 

The  only  native  account  which  has  been  discovered 
in  part  resembles  this,  but  in  many  respects  is  dif- 
ferent. So  far  as  at  present  deciphered,  it  runs 
thus : — 

"When  the  upper  region  was  not  yet  called 
heaven,  and  the  lower  region  was  not  yet  called 
earth,  and  the  abyss  of  Hades  had  not  yet  opened  its 
arms,  then  the  chaos  of  waters  gave  birth  to  all ; 
and  the  waters  were  gathered  into  one  place.  Men 
dwelt  not  as  yet  together ;  no  animals  as  yet  wan- 
dered about ;  nor  as  yet  had  the  gods  been  born ; 
not  as  yet  had  their  names  been  uttered,  or  their  at- 
tributes [fixed].  Then  were  born  the  gods  Lakhmu 
and  Lakhamu;  they  were  born  and  grew  up  ...  . 
Asshur  and  Kisshur  were  born  and  lived  through 
many  days Anu  (was  born  next). 

"  He  (Anu  ?)  constructed  dwellings  for  the  great 
gods ;  he  fixed  the  constellations,  whose  figures  were 
like  animals.  He  made  the  year  into  portions  ;  he 
divided  it;  twelve  months  he  established,  with  their 
constellations,  three  by  three.  And  from  among  the 
days  of  the  year  he  appointed  festivals;  he  made 
dwellings  for  the  planets,  for  their  rising  and  for 
their  setting.  And,  that  nothing  should  go  wrong, 
nor  come  to  a  stand^  he  placed  along  with  them  the 

1  Berosus  ap.  Euseb.  "  Chron.  Can."  i.  2;  Syncell.  "Chrono- 
graphia,"  vol.  i.  p.  53. 


68  TJie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

dwellings  of  Bel  and  Ilea;  and  he  opened  great 
gates  on  all  sides,  making  strong  the  portals  on  the 
left  and  on  the  right.  Moreover,  in  the  centre  he 
placed  luminaries.  The  moon  he  set  on  high  to  cir- 
cle through  the  night,  and  made  it  wander  all  the 
night  until  the  dawning  of  the  day.  Each  month 
without  fail  it  brought  together  festal  assemblies ;  in 
the  beginning  of  the  month,  at  the  rising  of  the 
night,  shooting  forth  its  horns  to  illuminate  the 
heavens,  and  on  the  seventh  day  a  holy  day  appoint- 
ing, and  commanding  on  that  day  a  cessation  from 
all  business.  And  he  (Aim)  set  the  sun  in  his  place 
in  the  horizon  of  heaven." * 

The  following  is  the  Chaldsean  account  of  the 
Deluge,  as  rendered  from  the  original  by  the  late 
Mr.  George  Smith  :2 — 

"  Hea  spake  to  me  and  said : — '  Son  of  Ubaratutu, 
make  a  ship  after  this  fashion  ....  for  I  destroy 
the  sinners  and  life  ....  and  cause  to  enter  in  all 
the  seed  of  life,  that  thou  mayest  preserve  them. 
The  ship  which  thou  shalt  make,  ....  cubits  shall 
be  the  measure  of  the  length  thereof,  and  .... 
cubits  the  measure  of  the  breadth  and  height  thereof; 
and  into  the  deep  thou  shalt  launch  it.'  I  under- 
stood, and  said  to  Hea,  my  Lord — '  Hea,  my  Lord, 
this  which  Thou  commandest  me,  I  will  perform: 

i  "Records  of  the  Fast,"  vol.  ix.  pp.  117-118. 

2  Mr.  Smith's  paper,  read  on  Dec.  3,  1872,  was  first  published 
in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology," 
in  1874.  It  was  afterwards  revised,  and  republished  in  the 
"Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  xii.  pp.  135-141.  The  translation  is 
taken  mainly  from  this  second  version. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      69 

[though  I  be  derided]  both  by  young  and  old,  it 
shall  be  done/  Hea  opened  his  mouth,  and  spake — 
'This  shalt  thou  say  to  them  ....  (hiatus  of  six 
lines)  ....  and  enter  thou  into  the  ship,  and  shut 
to  the  door;  and  bring  into  the  midst  of  it  thy  grain, 
and  thy  furniture,  and  thy  goods,  thy  wealth,  thy 
servants,  thy  female  slaves  and  thy  young  men. 
And  I  will  gather  to  thee  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and 
the  animals,  and  I  will  bring  them  to  thee;  and 
they  shall  be  enclosed  within  thy  door.'  Hasisadra 
his  mouth  opened  and  spake,  and  said  to  Hea,  his 
Lord — 'There  was  not  upon  the  earth  a  man  who 
could  make  the  ship  ....  strong  [planks]  I 
brought  ....  on  the  fifth  day  ....  in  its  circuit 
fourteen  measures  [it  measured] ;  in  its  sides  fourteen 
measures  it  measured  ....  and  upon  it  I  placed  its 
roof  and  closed  [the  door].  On  the  sixth  day  I  em- 
barked in  it :  on  the  seventh  I  examined  it  without : 
on  the  eighth  I  examined  it  within ;  planks  against 
the  influx  of  the  waters  I  placed :  where  I  saw  rents 
and  holes,  I  added  what  was  required.  Three  meas- 
ures of  bitumen  I  poured  over  the  outside:  three 
measures  of  bitumen  I  poured  over  the  inside  .... 

(five  lines  obscure  and  mutilated) Wine  in 

receptacles  I  collected,  like  the  waters  of  a  river; 
also  [food],  like  the  dust  of  the  earth,  I  collected  in 
boxes  [and  stored  up.]  And  Shamas  the  material  of 
the  ship  completed  [and  made  it]  strong.  And  the 
reed  oars  of  the  ship  I  caused  them  to  bring  [and 

place]  above  and  below All  I  possessed  of 

silver,  all  I  possessed  of  gold,  all  I  possessed  of  the 


70  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

seed  of  life,  I  caused  to  ascend  into  the  ship.  All 
my  male  servants,  all  my  female  servants,  all  the 
beasts  of  the  field,  all  the  animals,  all  the  sons  of  the 
people,  I  caused  to  go  up.  A  flood  Shamas  made, 
and  thus  he  spake  in  the  night :  '  I  will  cause  it  to 
rain  from  heaven  heavily.  Enter  into  the  midst  of 
the  ship,  and  shut  thy  door/  " 

The  command  of  Shamas  is  obeyed,  and  then 
"The  raging  of  a  storm  in  the  morning  arose,  from 
the  horizon  of  heaven  extending  far  and  wide.  Vul 
in  the  midst  of  it  thundered :  Nebo  and  Saru  went 
in  front:  the  throne-bearers  sped  over  mountains 
and  plains :  the  destroyer,  Nergal,  overturned :  Ninip 
went  in  front  and  cast  down:  the  spirits  spread 
abroad  destruction:  in  their  fury  they  swept  the 
earth:  the  flood  of  Vul  reached  to  heaven.  The 
bright  earth  to  a  waste  was  turned :  the  storm  o'er 
its  surface  swept :  from  the  face  of  the  earth  was  life 
destroyed :  the  strong  flood  that  had  whelmed  man- 
kind reached  to  heaven :  brother  saw  not  brother ; 
the  flood  did  not  spare  the  people.  Even  in  heaven 
the  gods  feared  the  tempest,  and  sought  refuge  in 
the  abode  of  Ami.  Like  dogs  the  gods  crouched 
down,  and  cowered  together.  Spake  Ishtar,  like  a 
child — uttered  the  great  goddess  her  speech :  '  When 
the  world  to  corruption  turned,  then  I  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  gods  prophesied  evil.  When  I  in  the 
presence  of  the  gods  prophesied  evil,  then  to  evil 
were  devoted  all  my  children.  I,  the  mother,  have 
given  birth  to  my  people,  and  lo!  now  like  the 
young  of  fishes  they  fill  the  sea.'     The  gods  were 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      71 

weeping  for  the  spirits  with  her;  the  gods  in  their 
seats  were  sitting  in  lamentation;  covered  were  their 
lips  on  account  of  the  corning  evil.  Six  days  and 
nights  passed;  the  wind,  the  flood,  the  storm  over- 
whelmed. On  the  seventh  day,  in  its  course  was 
calmed  the  storm;  and  all  the  tempest,  which  had 
destroyed  like  an  earthquake,  was  quieted.  The 
flood  He  caused  to  dry;  the  wind  and  the  deluge 
ended.  I  beheld  the  tossing  of  the  sea,  and  man- 
kind all  turned  to  corruption;  like  reeds  the  corpses 
floated.  I  opened  the  window,  and  the  light  broke 
over  my  face.  It  passed.  I  sat  down  and  wept; 
over  my  face  flowed  my  tears.  I  saw  the  shore  at 
the  edge  of  the  sea;  for  twelve  measures  the  land 
rose.  To  the  country  of  Nizir  went  the  ship :  the 
mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  the  ship :  to  pass  over  it 
was  not  able.  The  first  day  and  the  second  day  the 
mountain  of  Nizir,  the  same ;  the  third  day  and  the 
fourth  day  the  mountain  of  Nizir,  the  same;  the 
fifth  and  sixth  the  mountain  of  Nizir,  the  same ;  in 
the  course  of  the  seventh  day  I  sent  out  a  dove,  and 
it  left.  The  dove  went  to  and  fro,  and  a  resting- 
place  it  did  not  find,  and  it  returned.  I  sent  forth 
a  swallow,  and  it  left ;  the  swallow  went  to  and  fro, 
and  a  resting-place  it  did  not  find,  and  it  returned. 
I  sent  forth  a  raven,  and  it  left ;  the  raven  went,  and 
the  corpses  on  the  waters  it  saw,  and  it  did  eat :  it 
swam,  and  wandered  away,  and  returned  not.  I 
sent  the  animals  forth  to  the  four  winds :  I  poured 
out  a  libation :  I  built  an  altar  on  the  peak  of  the 
mountain  :  seven  jugs  of  wine  I  took ;  at  the  bottom 


72  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

I  placed  reeds,  pines,  and  spices.  The  gods  collected 
to  the  burning :  the  gods  collected  to  the  good  burn- 
ing. Like  sumpe  (?)  over  the  sacrifice  they  gath- 
ered/" 

One  more  example  must  conclude  our  specimens 
of  the  legends  current  among  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians  in  ancient  times.  As  the  preceding 
passage  is  myth  based  upon  history,  the  concluding 
one  shall  be  taken  from  that  portion  of  Assyrian  lore 
which  is  purely  and  wholly  imaginative.  The 
descent  of  Ishtar  to  Hades,  perhaps  in  search  of 
Tammuz,  is  related  as  follows1 : — 

"  To  the  land  of  Hades,  the  land  of  her  desire, 
Ishtar,  daughter  of  the  Moon-good  Sin,  turned  her 
mind.  The  daughter  of  Sin  fixed  her  mind  to  go  to 
the  House  where  all  meet,  the  dwelling  of  the  god 
Iskalla,  to  the  house  which  men  enter,  but  cannot 
depart  from — the  road  which  men  travel,  but  never 
retrace — the  abode  of  darkness  and  of  famine,  where 
earth  is  their  food,  their  nourishment  clay — where 
light  is  not  seen,  but  in  darkness  they  dwell — where 
ghosts,  like  birds,  flutter  their  wings,  and  on  the 
door  and  the  door-posts  the  dust  lies  undisturbed. 

"  When  Ishtar  arrived  at  the  gate  of  Hades,  to 
the  keeper  of  the  gate  a  word  she  spake  :  '  O  keeper 
of  the  entrance,  open  thy  gate !  Open  thy  gate,  I 
say  again,  that  I  may  enter  in!     If  thou  openest 

i  The  translation  of  Mr.  Fox  Talbot,  as  given  in  the  "Transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  119-124, 
and  again  in  "Records  of  the  Past,"  vol.  i.  pp.  143-149,  is  here 
followed. 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      73 

not  thy  gate,  if  I  do  not  enter  in,  I  will  assault  the 
door,  the  gate  I  will  break  down,  I  will  attack  the 
entrance,  I  will  split  open  the  portals.     I  will  raise 
the  dead,  to  be  the  devourers  of  the  living !     Upon 
the  living  the  dead  shall  prey/     Then  the  porter 
opened  his  mouth  and  spake,  and  thus  he  said  to 
great  Ishtar:    'Stay,  lady,  do  not  shake  down  the 
door ;  I  will  go  and  inform  Queen  Nin-ki-gal/     So 
the  porter  went  in  and  to  Mn-ki-gal  said  :     '  These 
curses  thy  sister  Ishtar  utters ;  yea,  she  blasphemes 
thee  with  fearful  curses.'     And  Nin-ki-gal,  hearing 
the  words,  grew  pale,  like  a  flower  when  cut  from 
the  stem ;  like  the  stalk  of  a  reed,  she  shook.     And 
she  said,  '  I  will  cure  her  rage — I  will  speedily  cure 
her  fury.     Her  curses  I  will  repay.     Light  up  con- 
suming flames!     Light  up  a  blaze  of  straw!     Be 
her  doom  with  the  husbands  who  left  their  wives ; 
be  her  doom  with  the  wives  who  forsook  their  lords; 
be  her  doom  with  the  youths  of  dishonored  lives. 
Go,  porter,  and  open  the  gate  for  her ;  but  strip  her, 
as  some  have  been  stripped  ere  now.'     The  porter 
went  and  opened  the  gate.     l  Lady  of  Tiggaba,  en- 
ter/ he  said  :   '  Enter.     It  is  permitted.     The  Queen 
of  Hades  to  meet  thee  comes/     So  the  first  gate  let 
her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  great 
crown  was  taken  from  her  head.     '  Keeper,  do  not 
take  off  from  me  the  crown  that  is  on  my  head/ 
*  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon 
its  removal/     The  next  gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was 
stopped,  and  there  the  ear-rings  were  taken  from  her 
ears.     l  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the  car- 


74  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

rings  from  my  ears.'  i  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen 
of  the  Land  insists  upon  their  removal.'  The  third 
gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the 
precious  stones  were  taken  from  her  head.  '  Keeper, 
do  not  take  off  from  me  the  gems  that  adorn  my 
head.7  i  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land 
insists  upon  their  removal/  The  fourth  gate  let  her 
in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the  small  jewels 
were  taken  from  her  brow.  i  Keeper,  do  not  take 
off  from  me  the  small  jewels  that  deck  my  brow.' 
'  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon 
their  removal/  The  fifth  gate  let  her  in,  but  she 
was  stopped,  and  there  the  girdle  was  taken  from 
her  waist.  c  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the 
girdle  that  girds  my  waist/  '  Excuse  it,  lady,  the 
Queen  of  the  Land  insists  upon  its  removal/  The 
sixth  gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there 
the  gold  rings  were  taken  from  her  hands  and  feet. 
'  Keeper,  do  not  take  off  from  me  the  gold  rings  of 
my  hands  and  feet/  '  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of 
the  Land  insists  upon  their  removal/  The  seventh 
gate  let  her  in,  but  she  was  stopped,  and  there  the 
last  garment  was  taken  from  her  body.  '  Keeper, 
do  not  take  off,  I  pray,  the  last  garment  from  my 
body/  i  Excuse  it,  lady,  the  Queen  of  the  Land 
insists  upon  its  removal/ 

"  After  that  Mother  Ishtar  had  descended  into 
Hades,  Nin-ki-gal  saw  and  derided  her  to  her 
face.  Then  Ishtar  lost  her  reason,  and  heaped  curses 
upon  the  other.  Nin-ki-gal  hereupon  opened  her 
mouth,  and  spake :    ( Go,  Namtar,  ....  and  bring 


Religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.      75 

her  out  for  punishment,  .  .  .  afflict  her  with  disease 
of  the  eye,  the  side,  the  feet,  the  heart,  the  head' 
(some  lines  effaced)  .... 

"  The  Divine  messenger  of  the  gods  lacerated  his 
face  before  them.  The  assembly  of  the  gods  was 
full.  .  .  .  The  Sun  came,  along  with  the  Moon,  his 
father,  and  weeping  he  spake  thus  unto  Hea,  the 
king :  '  Ishtar  has  descended  into  the  earth,  and  has 
not  risen  again ;  and  ever  since  the  time  that  Mother 

Ishtar  descended  into  hell, the  master  has 

ceased  from  commanding ;  the  slave  has  ceased  from 
obeying/  Then  the  god  Hea  in  the  depth  of  his 
mind  formed  a  design  ;  he  modelled,  for  her  escape, 
the  figure  of  a  man  of  clay.  'Go  to  save  her, 
Phantom,  present  thyself  at  the  portal  of  Hades ; 
the  seven  gates  of  Hades  will  all  open  before  thee; 
Nin-ki-gal  will  see  thee,  and  take  pleasure  because 
of  thee.  When  her  mind  has  grown  calm,  and  her 
anger  has  worn  itself  away,  awe  her  with  the  names 
of  the  great  gods !  Then  prepare  thy  frauds !  Fix 
on  deceitful  tricks  thy  mind !  Use  the  chiefest  of 
thy  tricks  !  Bring  forth  fish  out  of  an  empty  vessel ! 
That  will  astonish  Nin-ki-gal,  and  to  Ishtar  she  will 
restore  her  clothing.  The  reward — a  great  reward — 
for  these  things  shall  not  fail.  Go,  Phantom,  save 
her,  and  the  great  assembly  of  the  people  shall  crown 
thee !  Meats,  the  best  in  the  city,  shall  be  thy  food  ! 
Wine,  the  most  delicious  in  the  city,  shall  be  thy 
drink !  A  royal  palace,  shall  be  thy  dwelling,  a 
throne  of  state  shall  be  thy  seat!  Magician  and 
conjuror  shall  kiss  the  hem  of  thy  garment! ' 


76  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

"  NiD-ki-gal  opened  her  mouth  and  spake ;  to  her 
messenger,  Namtar,  commands  she  gave  :  '  Go,  Nam- 
tar,  the  Temple  of  Justice  adorn  !  Deck  the  images ! 
Deck  the  altars  !  Bring  out  Anunnak,  and  let  him 
take  his  seat  on  a  throne  of  gold!  Pour  out  for 
Ishtar  the  water  of  life;  from  my  realms  let  her 
depart.'  Namtar  obeyed  ;  he  adorned  the  Temple ; 
decked  the  images,  decked  the  altars;  brought  out 
Anunnak,  and  let  him  take  his  seat  on  a  throne  of 
gold ;  poured  out  for  Ishtar  the  water  of  life,  and 
suffered  her  to  depart.  Then  the  first  gate  let  her 
out,  and  gave  her  back  the  garment  of  her  form. 
The  next  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the 
jewels  for  her  hands  and  feet  The  third  gate  let 
her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  girdle  for  her  waist. 
The  fourth  gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the 
small  gems  she  had  worn  upon  her  brow.  The  fifth 
gate  let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  precious 
stones  that  had  been  upon  her  head.  The  sixth  gate 
let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  ear-rings  that 
were  taken  from  her  ears.  And  the  seventh  gate 
let  her  out,  and  gave  her  back  the  crown  she  had 
carried  on  her  head." 

So  ends  this  curious  legend,  and  with  it  the  limits 
of  our  space  require  that  we  should  terminate  this 
notice  of  the  religion  of  the  Assyrians  and  Baby- 
lonians. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   RELIGION   OF   THE   ANCIENT   IRANIANS. 

'ApioTOTETiqg  <p?jcl  Svo  tear'  avTovg  elvcu  apxas,  ayadbv  Saifiova 
ml  kclkov  Saifiova.—DiOG.  Laert.  Proem,  p.  2. 

THE  Iranians  were  in  ancient  times  the  dominant 
race  throughout  the  entire  tract  lying  between 
the  Suliman  mountains  and  the  Pamir  steppe  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  great  Mesopotamian  valley  on  the 
other.  Intermixed  in  portions  of  the  tract  with  a 
Cushite  or  Nigritic,  and  in  others  with  a  Turanian 
element,  they  possessed,  nevertheless,  upon  the  whole, 
a  decided  preponderance;  and  the  tract  itself  has 
been  known  as  "  Ariana,"  or  "  Iran,"  at  any  rate 
from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  present 
day ! *  The  region  is  one  in  which  extremes  are 
brought  into  sharp  contrast,  and  forced  on  human 
observation,  the  summers  being  intensely  hot,  and  the 
winters  piercingly  cold,  the  more  favoured  portions 
luxuriantly  fertile,  the  remainder  an  arid  and  fright- 
ful desert.     If,  as  seems  to  be  now  generally  thought 

1  Strabo,  who  is  the  earliest  of  extant  writer^  to  use  "Ariana" 
in  this  broad  sense,  probabty  obtained  the  term  from  the  contem- 
poraries of  Alexander.  It  was  certainly  used  by  Apollodorus  of 
Artemita  (ab.  b.  c.  130). 

77 


78  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

by  the  best  informed  and  deepest  investigators,1  the 
light  of  primeval  relation  very  early  faded  away  in 
Asia,  and  religions  there  were  in  the  main  elaborated 
out  of  the  working  upon  the  circumstances  of  his  en- 
vironment, of  that  "religious  faculty"  wherewith 
God  had  endowed  mankind,  we  might  expect  that  in 
this  peculiar  region  a  peculiar  religion  should  develop 
itself — a  religion  of  strong  antitheses  and  sharp  con- 
trasts, unlike  that  of  such  homogeneous  tracts  as  the 
Nile  valley  and  the  Mesopotamian  plain,  where  cli- 
mate was  almost  uniform,  and  a  monotonous  fertility 
spread  around  universal  abundance.  The  fact  an- 
swers to  our  natural  anticipation.  At  a  time  which 
it  is  difficult  to  date,  but  which  those  best  skilled  in 
Iranian  antiquities  are  inclined  to  place  before  the 
birth  of  Moses,2  there  grew  up,  in  the  region  whereof 
we  are  speaking,  a  form  of  religion  marked  by  very 
special  and  unusual  features,  very  unlike  the  religions 
of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  a  thing  quite  sui  generis,  one 
very  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  past  history  of  the  human  race,  and 
more  especially  of  such  as  wish  to  study  the  history 
of  religions. 

Ancient  tradition  associates  this  religion  with  the 
name  of  Zoroaster.  Zoroaster,  or  Zarathrustra,  ac- 
cording to  the  native  spelling,3  was,  by  one  account,4 
a  Median  king  who  conquered  Babylon  about  B.  c. 

1  See  Max  Miiller,  "Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Religion," 
Lecture  I.  pp.  40,  41. 

2  Haug,  "  Essays  on  the  Religion,  etc.,  of  the  Parsees,"  p.  255. 

3  See  "  Zendavesta,"  passim. 

4  Berosus  ap.  Syncell.  "Chronographia,"  p.  147. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  79 

2458.  By  another,  which  is  more  probable,  and 
which  rests,  moreover,  on  better  authority,  he  was  a 
Bactrian,1  who,  at  a  date  not  quite  so  remote,  came 
forward  in  the  broad  plain  of  the  middle  Oxus  to 
instil  into  the  minds  of  his  countrymen  the  doctrines 
and  precepts  of  a  new  religion.  Claiming  divine  in- 
spiration, and  professing  to  hold  from  time  to  time 
direct  conversation  with  the  Supreme  Being,  he  deliv- 
ered his  revelations  in  a  mythical  form,  and  obtained 
their  general  acceptance  as  divine  by  the  Bactrian 
people.  His  religion  gradually  spread  from  "  happy 
Bactra,"  "  Bactra  of  the  lofty  banner," 2  first  to  the 
neighbouring  countries,  and  then  to  all  the  numerous 
tribes  of  the  Iranians,  until  at  last  it  became  the  es- 
tablished religion  of  the  mighty  empire  of  Persia, 
which,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  before  our 
era,  established  itself  on  the  ruins  of  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  kingdoms,  and  shortly  afterwards  overran 
and  subdued  the  ancient  monarchy  of  the  Pharaohs. 
In  Persia  it  maintained  its  ground,  despite  the  shocks 
of  Grecian  and  Parthian  conquest,  until  Mohamme- 
dan intolerance  drove  it  out  at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
and  forced  it  to  seek  a  refuge  further  east,  in  the 
peninsula  of  Hindustan.  Here  it  still  continues,  in 
Guzerat  and  in  Bombay,  the  creed  of  that  ingenious 
and  intelligent  people  known  to  Anglo-Indians— and 
may  we  not  say  to  Englishmen  generally  ? — as  Par- 


i  Ilermipp.  ap.  Arnob.  "Adv.  Gentes,"   i.  52;  Justin,   i.  1 
Amin.  Mure,  xxiii.6;  Moses  Choren.  "Hist.  Annen."  i.  5. 
2  "Vendidad,"  Farg.  ii.  s.  7. 


80  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

The  religion  of  the  Par  sees  is  contained  in  a  vol- 
ume of  some  size,  which  has  received  the  name  of 
"  the  Zendavesta."  l  Subjected  for  the  last  fifty  years 
to  the  searching  analysis  of  first-rate  orientalists — 
Burnouf,  Westergaard,  Brockhaus,  Spiegel,  Haug, 
Windischmann,  Hubschmann — this  work  has  been 
found  to  belong  in  its  various  parts  to  very  different 
dates,  and  to  admit  of  being  so  dissected 2  as  to  reveal 
to  us,  not  only  what  are  the  tenets  of  the  modern 
Parsees,  but  what  was  the  earliest  form  of  that  reli- 
gion whereof  theirs  is  the  remote  and  degenerate  de- 
scendant. Signs  of  a  great  antiquity  are  found 
to  attach  to  the  language  of  certain  rhythmical 
compositions,  called  Gathas  or  hymns;  and  the 
religious  ideas  contained  in  these  are  found  to  be  at 
once  harmonious,  and  also  of  a  simpler  and  more 
primitive  character  than  those  contained  in  the  rest 
of  the  volume.  From  the  Gathas  chiefly,  but  also  to 
some  extent  from  other,  apparently  very  ancient,  por- 
tions of  the  Zendavesta,  the  characteristics  of  the 
early  Iranian  religion  have  been  drawn  out  by  vari- 
ous scholars,  particularly  by  Dr.  Martin  Haug ;  and 
it  is  from  the  labours  of  these  writers,  in  the  main, 

1  Anquetil  Duperron  introduced  the  sacred  book  of  the  Parsees 
to  the  knowledge  of  Europeans  under  this  name ;  and  the  word 
thus  introduced  can  scarcely  be  now  displaced.  Otherwise 
"  Avesta-Zend"  might  be  recommended  as  the  more  proper  title. 
"Avesta"  means  "text,"  and  "Zend"  means  "comment." 
" Avesta  u  Zend,"  or  "Text  and  Comment"  is  the  proper  title, 
which  is  then  contracted  into  "Avesta-Zend." 

2  Haug,  "Essays,"  pp.  136-138;  Max  Muller,  "Introduction 
to  the  Science  of  Religion,"  pp.  26-29. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  81 

that  we  shall  be  content  to  draw  our  picture  of  the 
religion  in  question. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  religion,  and  that 
which  is  generally  allowed  to  b^its  leading  character- 
istic, is  the  assertion  of  Dualism.  By  Dualism  we 
mean  the  belief  in  two  original  uncreated  principles, 
a  principle  of  good  and  a  principle  of  evil.  This 
creed  was  not  perhaps  contained  in  the  teaching  of 
Zoroaster  himself,1  but  it  was  developed  at  so  early  a 
date 2  out  of  that  teaching,  that  in  treating  generally 
of  the  Iranian  religion  we  must  necessarily  regard 
Dualism  as  a  part  of  it.  The  Iranians  of  historic 
times  held  that  from  all  eternity  there  had  existed 
two  mighty  and  rival  beings,  the  authors  of  all  other 
existences,  who  had  been  engaged  in  a  perpetual  con- 
test, each  seeking  to  injure,  baffle,  and  in  every  way 
annoy  and  thwart  the  other.  Both  principles  were 
real  persons,  possessed  of  will,  intelligence,  power, 
consciousness,  and  other  personal  qualities.  To  the 
one  they  gave  the  name  of  Ahura-Mazda,  to  the  other 
that  of  Augro-Mainyus. 

Here  let  us  pause  for  a  moment,  and  consider  the 
import  of  these  two  names.  Names  of  deities,  as 
Professor  Max  Muller  has  well  pointed  out,3  are 
among  the  most  interesting  of  studies ;  and  a  proper 
understanding  of  their  meaning  throws  frequently 

1  See  the  Author's  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  104.  105. 

2  The  Second  Fargard  of  the  "  Vendidad,"  which  from  internal 
evidence  may  be  pronounced  earlier  than  b.  c.  800,  is  as  strongly 
Dualistic  as  any  other  portion  of  the  volume. 

3  "Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Religion,"  Lecture  III.  pp. 
171  et  scqq. 

6 


82  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

very  considerable  light  on  the  nature  and  character 
of  a  religion.  Now,  Ahura-Mazda  is  a  word  com- 
posed of  three  elements:  "Ahura,"  "maz,"  "da." 
The  first  of  these  is  properly  an  adjective,  signifying, 
"  living;"  it  corresponds  to  "asura"  in  Sanskrit,  and 
like  that  passes  from  an  adjectival  to  a  substantival 
force,  and  is  used  for  "  living  being,"  especially  for 
living  beings  superior  to  man.  Perhaps  it  may  be 
best  expressed  in  English  by  the  word  "spirit,"  only 
that  we  must  not  regard  absolute  immateriality  as  im- 
plied in  it.  "  Maz "  is  cognate  to  the  "  maj  "  in  major, 
and  the  "mag"  or  "  meg"  in  "magnus"  and  /ii^ac;  it 
is  an  intensitive,  and  means  "much."  "Da"or"dao" 
is  a  word  of  a  double  meaning ;  it  is  a  participle,  or 
verbal  adjective,  and  signifies  either  "giving"  or 
"knowing,"  being  connected  with  the  Latin  "do," 
"  dare"  (Greek  dtdw/ic),  "  to  give,"  and  with  the  Greek 
davjvac,  davjtiuDV,  "to  know,"  "knowing."  The  entire 
word,  "  Ahura-Mazda,"  thus  means  either,  "  the 
much-knowing  spirit,"  or  the  "  much-giving  spirit," 
the  "  all-bountiful,"  or  "  the  all-wise."  l 

Angro-Mainyus  contains  two  elements  only,  an 
adjective  and  a  substantive.  "Angro"  is  akin  to 
"  niger,"  and  so  to  "  negro ;"  it  means  simply  "  black  " 
or  "dark."  "  Mainyus,"  a  substantive,  is  the  exact 
equivalent  of  the  Latin  "mens,"  and  the  Greek 
/zivoc.  It  means  "mind,"  "intelligence."  Thus 
Angro-Mainyus  is  the  "black  or  dark  intelligence." 

i  See  Hang,  "Essays,''  p.  33;  Brockliaus,  " Vendidad-Sade," 
pp.  347  and  385:  and  Sir  H.  Rawlinson,""  Persian  Vocabulary," 
ad  voc.  "  Aurauiazda." 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  83 

Thus  the  names  themselves  sufficiently  indicated 
to  those  who  first  used  them  the  nature  of  the  two 
beings.  Ahura-Mazda  was  the  "  all-bountiful,  all- 
wise,  living  being"  or  "spirit/'  who  stood  at  the 
head  of  all  that  was  good  and  lovely,  beautiful  and 
delightful.  Angro-Mainyus  was  the  "dark  and 
gloomy  intelligence/'  that  had  from  the  first  been 
Ahura-Mazda's  enemy,  and  was  bent  on  thwarting 
and  vexing  him.  And  with  these  fundamental  no- 
tions agreed  all  that  the  sacred  books  taught  con- 
cerning either  being.  Ahura-Mazda  was  declared 
to  be  "  the  creator  of  life,  the  earthly  and  the  spirit- 
ual ; "  he  had  made  "  the  celestial  bodies/'  "  earth, 
water,  and  trees,"  "all  good  creatures,"  and  "all 
good,  true  things."  He  was  "good,"  "holy," 
"pure,"  "true,"  "the  holy  god,"  "the  holiest," 
"  the  essence  of  truth,"  "  the  father  of  truth,"  "  the 
best  being  of  all,"  "the  master  of  purity."  Su- 
premely happy,  he  possessed  every  blessing,  "  health, 
wealth,  virtue,  Avisdom,  immortality."  *  From  him 
came  all  good  to  man — on  the  pious  and  the  righ- 
teous he  bestowed,  not  only  earthly  advantages,  but 
precious  spiritual  gifts,  truth,  devotion,  "the  good 
mind,"  and  everlasting  happiness;  and,  as  he  re- 
warded the  good,  so  he  also  punished  the  bad, 
although  this  was  an  aspect  in  which  he  was  but 
seldom  contemplated. 

1  The  expressions  in  inverted  commas  are  all  taken  from  Haug's 
translations  of  the  Yasna  given  in  his  "Essays."  The  exact 
place  of  each  is  noted  in  the  Author's  "Ancient  Monarchies," 
vol.  iii.  p.  90. 


84  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Angro-Mainyus,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the  crea- 
tor and  upholder  of  everything  that  was  evil.  Op- 
posed to  Ahura-Mazda  from  the  beginning,  he  had 
been  engaged  in  a  perpetual  warfare  with  him. 
Whatever  good  thing  Ahura-Mazda  had  created, 
Angro-Mainyus  had  corrupted  and  ruined  it.1  Moral 
and  physical  evils  were  alike  at  his  disposal.  He 
could  blast  the  earth  with  barrenness,  or  make  it 
produce  thorns,  thistles,  and  poisonous  plants;  his 
were  the  earthquake,  the  storm,  the  plague  of  hail, 
the  thunderbolt ;  he  could  cause  disease  and  death, 
sweep  off  a  nation's  flocks  and  herds  by  murrain,  or 
depopulate  a  continent  by  pestilence  ;  ferocious  wild 
beasts,  serpents,  toads,  mice,  hornets,  musquitoes, 
were  his  creation ;  he  had  invented  and  introduced 
into  the  world  the  sins  of  witchcraft,  murder,  unbe- 
lief, cannibalism ;  he  excited  wars  and  tumults,  con- 
tinually stirred  up  the  bad  against  the  good,  and 
laboured  by  every  possible  expedient  to  make  vice 
triumph  over  virtue.  Ahura-Mazda  could  exercise 
no  control  over  him ;  the  utmost  that  he  could  do 
was  to  keep  a  perpetual  watch  upon  his  rival,  and 
seek  to  baffle  and  defeat  him.  This  he  was  not 
always  able  to  do;  despite  his  best  endeavours, 
Angro-Mainyus  was  not  unfrequently  victorious. 

The  two  great  beings  who  thus  divided  between 
them  the  empire  of  the  universe,  were  neither  of  them 
content  to  be  solitary.  Each  had  called  into  exist- 
ence a  number  of  inferior  spirits,  who  acknowledged 

1  See  the  Second  Fargard  of  the  "  Vendidad,"  which  is  given 
at  length  in  the  above-mentioned  work,  vol.  iii.  pp.  238-240. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  85 

their  sovereignty,  fought  on  their  side,  and  sought  to 
execute  their  behests.  At  the  head  of  the  good 
spirits  subject  to  Ahura-Mazda  stood  a  band  of  six 
dignified  with  the  title  of  Amesha-Spentas,  or  "  Im- 
mortal Holy  Ones,"  the  chief  assistants  of  the  Prin- 
ciple of  Good  both  in  counsel  and  in  action.  These 
were  Vohu-mano,  or  Bahman,  the  "Good  Mind"; 
Asha-vahista,  or  Ardibehesht,  "  the  Highest  Truth ; " 
Khshathra-vairya,  or  Shahravar,  the  genius  of  wealth : 
Spenta-Armaiti  (Island-armat),  the  genius  of  the 
Earth  :  Haurvatat  (Khordad),  the  genius  of  Health : 
and  Ameretat  (Amerdat),  the  genius  of  Immortality.1 
In  direct  antithesis  to  these  stood  the  band,  likewise 
one  of  six,  which  formed  the  council  and  chief  sup- 
port of  Angro-Mainyus,  namely,  Akomano,  "the 
Bad  Mind  " :  Inclra,  the  god  of  storms :  Saurva : 
Naonhaitya:  Taric:  and  Zaric.2  Besides  these 
leading  spirits  there  was  marshalled  on  either  side  an 
innumerable  host  of  lesser  and  subordinate  ones, 
called  respectively  ahuras  and  devas,  who  constitu- 
ted the  armies  or  attendants  of  the  two  great  powers 
and  were  employed  by  them  to  work  out  their  pur- 
poses. The  leader  of  the  angelic  hosts,  or  ahuras, 
was  a  glorious  being,  called  Sraosha  or  Serosh3 — 
"'the  good,  tall,  fair  Serosh,"  who  stood  in  the  Zo- 
roastrian  system  where  Michael  the  Archangel  stands 

1  Haug,  "Essays,"  p.  2G3 ;  Pusey,  a  Lectures  on  Daniel,"  pp. 
536,  537. 

2  Haug,  1.  s.  c. ;  Windischmann,  "  Zoroastrische  Studien,"  p.  59. 

3  On  Serosh,  see  the  Author's  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  iii. 
pp.  99,  112. 


86  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

in  the  Christian.1  The  armies  of  Angro-Mainyns 
had  no  such  single  leader,  but  fought  under  the 
orders  of  a  number  of  co-equal  captains,  as  Drukhs, 
"  destruction  "  :  Aeshemo,  "  rapine  "  :  Daivis,  "  de- 
ceit " :  Driwis,  "  poverty  "  :  and  others.  Offering 
an  uninterrupted  and  dogged  resistance  to  the  army 
of  Ahura-Mazda,  they  maintained  the  struggle  on 
something  like  equal  terms,  and  showed  no  sign  of 
any  intention  to  make  their  submission. 

Neither  Ahura-Mazda  nor  the  Amesha-Spentas 
were  represented  by  the  early  Iranians  under  any 
material  forms.  The  Zoroastrian  system  was  mark- 
edly anti-idolatrous :  and  the  utmost  that  was  al- 


WINGED  CIRCLE. 


lowed  the  worshipper  was  an  emblematic  representa- 
tion of  the  Supigme  Being  by  means  of  a  winged 
circle,  with  which  was  occasionally  combined  an  in- 
complete human  figure,  robed  and  wearing  a  tiara. 

1  It  is  no  doubt  true,  as  Dr.  Pusey  observes  ("Lectures  on 
Daniel,"  p.  535),  that  the  character  of  the  Amesha-Spentas,  and 
of  the  other  great  spirits  or  genii  of  the  Zendavesta,  is  altogether 
"below  that  of  the  holy  angels,"  and  that  the  term  "archangel," 
if  applied  to  any  of  them,  is  "a  misnomer"  [Ibid.  p.  538).  But 
still  there  is  sufficient  resemblance  to  make  the  comparison  natu- 
ral and  not  improper. 


FOUR-WINGED  FIGURE  AT  MURGAB. 


88  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

A  four- winged  figure  at  Murgab,  the  ancient  Pasar- 
gadre,  is  also  possibly  a  representation  of  Serosh  ; 
but  otherwise  the  objects  of  their  religious  regards 
were  not  exhibited  in  material  shapes  by  the  early 
Iranians. 

Among  the  angelic  beings  reverenced  by  the 
Iranians  lower  than  the  Arnesha-Spentas,  but  still  of 
a  very  high  rank  and  dignity,  were  Mithra,  the 
genius  of  light,  early  identified  with  the  sun ;  Tistrya, 
the  Dog-star  ; l  Airyaman,  a  genius  presiding  over 
marriage;2  and  others.  Mithra  was  originally  not 
held  in  very  high  esteem ;  but  by  degrees  he  was 
advanced,  and  ultimately  came  to  occupy  a  place  only 
a  little  inferior  to  that  assigned  from  the  first  to  Ahura- 
Mazda.  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  placed  the 
emblems  of  Ahura-Mazda  and  of  Mithra  in  equally 
conspicuous  positions  on  the  sculptured  tablet  above 
his  tomb ;  and  his  example  was  followed  by  all 
the  later  monarchs  of  his  race  whose  sepulchres  are 
still  in  existence.3  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  placed  an 
image  of  Mithra  in  the  temple  attached  to  the  royal 
palace  at  Susa.4  He  also  in  his  inscriptions  unites 
Mithra  with  Ahura-Mazda,  and  prays  for  their  con- 
joint protection.5  Artaxerxes  Ochus  does  the  same 
a  little  later;6  and  the  practice  is  also  observed  in 

1  "  Zendavesta,"  iii.  72  (Spiegel's  edition). 

2  Haug,  "Essays,"  p.  231. 

3  See  the  Author's  "Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  iv.  p.  334,  and 
Flandin,  "Voyage  en  Perse,"  pis.  164  bis,  166,  173-176. 

*  Loftus,  "Chaldrea  and  Susiana,"  p.  372. 

6  Ibid. 

6  Sir  H.  Rawlinson    "Cuneiform  Inscriptions,"  vol.  i.  p.  342. 


90  TJie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

portions  of  the  Zendavesta  composed  about  this  pe- 
riod.1 Ahura-Mazda  and  Mitkra  are  called  "  the  two 
great  ones,"  "  the  two  great,  imperishable,  and  pure." 2 
The  position  of  man  in  the  cosmic  scheme  was 
determined  by  the  fact  that  he  was  among  the  crea- 
tions of  Ahura-Mazda.  Formed  and  placed  on  earth 
by  the  Good  Being,  he  was  bound  to  render  him 
implicit  obedience,  and  to  oppose  to  the  utmost 
Angro-Mainyus  and  his  creatures.  His  duties  might 
be  summed  up  under  the  four  heads  of  piety,  purity, 
industry,  and  veracity.  Piety  was  to  be  shown  by 
an  acknowledgment  of  Ahura-Mazda  as  the  One 
True  God,  by  a  reverential  regard  for  the  Amesha- 
Spentas  and  the  Izeds,  or  lower  angels,  by  the  fre- 
quent offering  of  prayers,  praises,  and  thanksgivings, 
the  recitation  of  hymns,  the  occasional  sacrifice  of 
animals,  and  the  performance  from  time  to  time  of  a 
curious  ceremony  known  as  that  of  the  Haoma  or 
Homa.  This  consisted  in  the  extraction  of  the  juice 
of  the  Homa  plant  by  the  priests  during  the  recita- 
tion of  prayers,  the  formal  presentation  of  the  liquid 
extracted  to  the  sacrificial  fire,  the  consumption  of  a 
small  portion  of  it  by  one  of  the  officiating  ministers, 
and  the  division  of  the  remainder  among  the  wor- 
shippers.3 In  sacrifices  the  priests  were  also  necessary 
go-betweens.  The  most  approved  victim  was  the 
horse ; 4  but  it  was  likewise  allowable  to  offer  oxen, 

i  "Yasna,"  i.  34;  ii.  44;  iii.  48;  "Mihr  Yasht,"  113. 
2  See  Pusey's  "Lectures  on  Daniel,"  p.  542,  note  3. 
s  See  Haug,  "Essays,"  p.  239. 

*  "Yasna,"  xliv.  18.     Compare  Xen.  ''Cyrop."  viii.  3,  \  24; 
and  Ovid,  "Fasti,"  i.  385. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  91 

sheep,  or  goats.  The  animal  having  been  brought 
before  an  altar  on  which  burnt  the  sacred  fire,  kin- 
dled originally  (according  to  the  general  belief)  from 
heaven,  was  there  slain  by  a  priest,  who  took  of  the 
flesh  and  shoived  it  to  the  sacrificial  fire,  after  which 
the  victim  was  cooked  and  eaten  at  a  solemn  meal  by 
the  priests  and  worshippers  united. 

The  purity  required  of  the  Iranians  was  inward  as 
well  as  outward.  Outward  purity  had  to  be  main- 
tained by  a  multiplicity  of  external  observances,1 
forming  in  their  entirety  a  burden  as  heavy  to  bear 
as  that  imposed  by  the  Mosaic  ceremonial  law  on  the 
people  of  Israel.  But  inward  purity  was  not  ne- 
glected. Not  only  were  the  Iranians  required  to 
refrain  from  all  impure  acts,  but  also  from  impure 
words,  and  even  from  impure  thoughts.  Ahura- 
Mazda  was  "the  pure,  the  master  of  purity,"  and 
would  not  tolerate  less  than  perfect  purity  in  his 
votaries. 

The  industry  required  by  the  Zoroastrian  religion 
was  of  a  peculiar  kind.  Man  was  placed  upon  the 
earth  to  preserve  Ahura-Mazda's  "good  creation;" 
and  this  could  only  be  done  by  careful  tilling  of  the 
soil,  eradication  of  thorns  and  weeds,  and  reclamation 
of  the  tracts  over  which  Angro-Mainyus  had  spread 
the  curse  of  barrenness.  To  cultivate  the  soil  was 
thus  a  religious  duty:2  the  whole  community  was 
required  to  be  agricultural ;  and  either  as  proprietor, 
as  farmer,  or  as  labouring  man,  each  Zoroastrian  was 

i  "Vendidad,"  Farg.  8-11,  and  16,  17. 
2  "  Yasna,"  xxxiii.  3. 


92  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

bound  to  "  further  the  works  of  life "  by  advancing 
tillage. 

The  duty  of  veracity  was  inculcated  perhaps  more 
strenuously  than  any  other.  "  The  Persian  youth 
are  taught,"  says  Herodotus,1  "three  things,  and 
three  things  only :  to  ride,  to  draw  the  bow,  and  to 
speak  the  truth."  Ahura-Mazda  was  the  "true 
spirit,"2  and  the  chief  of  the  Amesha-Spentas  was 
Asha-vahista,  "the  best  truths  Druj,  "falsehood,"  is 
held  up  to  detestation,  alike  in  the  Zendavesta  and 
in  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions,3  as  the  basest, 
the  most  contemptible,  and  the  most  pernicious  of 
vices. 

If  it  be  asked  what  opinions  were  entertained  by  the 
Zoroastrians  concerning  man's  ultimate  destiny,  the 
answer  would  seem  to  be,  that  they  were  devout  and 
earnest  believers  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
a  conscious  future  existence.  It  was  taught  that  im- 
mediately after  death  the  souls  of  men,  both  good 
and  bad,  proceeded  together  along  an  appointed  path 
to  the  "  bridge  of  the  gatherer."  There  was  a  nar- 
row road  conducting  to  heaven,  or  paradise,  over 
which  the  souls  of  the  good  alone  could  pass,  while 
the  wicked  fell  from  it  into  the  gulf  below,  where 
they  found  themselves  in  the  place  of  punishment. 
The  pious  soul  was  assisted  across  the  bridge  by  the 
angel  Serosh,  "  the   happy,  well-formed,   swift,  tall 

i  Herod,  i.  136. 

2  "Yasna,"  xxxv.  3. 

3  Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  "Cuneiform  Inscriptions,"  vol.  i.  pp.  200, 
244,  245,  etc. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  93 

Serosh,"  who  went  out  to  meet  the  weary  wayfarer, 
and  sustained  his  steps  as  he  effected  the  difficult 
passage.  The  prayers  of  his  friends  in  this  world 
much  availed  the  deceased,  and  helped  him  forward 
greatly  on  his  journey.  As  he  entered  the  angel 
Vohu-mano  rose  from  his  tfrrone,  and  greeted  him 
with  the  words — "  How  happy  art  thou,  who  Ixast 
come  here  to  us,  exchanging  mortality  for  immortali- 
ty !"  Then  the  good  soul  went  joyfully  onward  to 
the  golden  throne,  to  paradise.  As  for  the  wicked, 
when  they  fell  into  the  gulf,  they  found  themselves 
in  outer  darkness,  in  tjie  kingdom  of  Angro-Main- 
yus,  where  they  were  forced  to  remain  in  a  sad  and 
wretched  condition.1 

It  has  been  maintained  by  some  that  the  early 
Iranians  also  held  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  body.2  Such  a  doctrine  is  certainly  contained  in 
the  more  recent  portions  of  the  Zenda vesta ;  and  it  is 
argued  that  there  are  expressions  in  the  more  ancient 
parts  of  that  work  which  imply  it,  if  they  do  not 
actually  assert  it.  But  a  careful  examination  of  the 
passages  adduced  makes  it  evident,  that  no  more  is 
in  reality  asserted  in  them  than  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  the  soul ;  and  Spiegel  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that,  even  so  late  as  the  time  when  the  "  Vendidad" 
was  written,  "the  resurrection  of  the  body  was  not 
yet  known  to  the  Parsees," 3  or  Persians. 

The  original  religion  of  the  Iranians  was  Dualism 

1  "Vendidad,"  xix.  30-32;  Haug,  "Essays,"  p.  156. 

2Haug,  "Essays,"  p.  2G6. 

3  Spiegel,  "A vesta,"  vol.  ii.  p.  248,  249. 


94  Tlie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

of  a  very  pronounced  type,  assigning,  as  it  did,  to 
Angro-Mainyus  complete  independence  of  Ahura- 
Mazda,  and  equal  eternity  with  him,  with  almost 
equal  power.  It  verged  upon  polytheism  by  the 
very  important  position  which  it  assigned  to  certain 
of  the  ahuras  or  angels,  whom  it  coupled  with  the 
Principle  of  Good  in  a  way  which  derogated  from 
his  supreme  and  unrivalled  dignity.1  In  its  morality 
it  maintained  a  high  tone;  but  it  imposed  on  its 
followers  a  burdensome  yoke  of  ceremonial  obser- 
vances. It  taught  a  future  life,  with  happiness  for 
the  good  and  misery  for  the  wicked ;  but  unfortu- 
nately inclined  to  identify  goodness  with  orthodoxy, 
and  wickedness  with  a  rejection  of  the  doctrine  of 
Zoroaster. 

It  may  help  the  reader  to  understand  the  inner 
spirit  of  the  religion,  if  we  give  one  or  two  specimens 
of  the  hymns  which  constituted  so  important  a  part 
of  the  Zoroastrian  worship.  The  following  is  one 
of  the  GiUhas,  and  is  by  some  assigned  to  Zoroaster 
himself2  :— - 

"Now  will  I  speak  and  proclaim  to  all  who  have  come  to  listen 

Thy  praise,  Ahura-Mazda,  and  thine,  0  Vohu-mano. 

Asha !  I  ask  that  thy  grace  may  appear  in  the  lights  of  heaven. 

Hear  with  your  ears  what  is  best,  perceive  with  your  minds  what 
is  purest, 

1  Pusey,  "Lectures  on  Daniel,"  p.  535,  note  9. 

2  Hiibschmann,  "Ein  Zoroastrisches  Lie  d,  mit  Riicksicht  auf 
jlie  Tradition,  iibersetzt  und  erklart."  Miinchen,  1872.  Com- 
pare Max  Midler,  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,"  pp. 
237-239. 


TJie  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  95 

So  that  each  man  for  himself  may,  before  the  great  doom  cometh, 
Choose  the  creed  he  prefers.     May  the  wise  ones  be  on  our  side. 

These  two  Spirits  are  twins ;  they  made  known  in  times  that  are 

bygone 
That  which  is  good  and  evil,  in  thought,  and  word,  and  action. 
Rightly  decided  between  them  the  good ;  not  so  the  evil. 

When  these  Two  came  together,  first  of  all  they  created 

Life  and  death,  that  at  last  there  might  be  for  such  as  are  evil 

Wretchedness,  but  for  the  good  a  happy  blest  existence. 

Of  these  Two  the  One  who  was  evil  chose  what  was  evil ; 

He  who  was  kind  and   good,  whose  robe  was  the  changeless 

Heaven, 
Chose  what  was  right ;  those,  too,  whose  works  pleased  Ahura- 

Mazda. 

They  could  not  rightly  discern  who  erred  and  worshipped  the 

Devas ; 
They  the  Bad  Spirit  chose,  and,  having  held  counsel  together, 
Turned  to  Rapine,  that  so  they  might  make  man's  life  an  afiliction. 

But  to  the  good  came  might ;  and  with  might  came  wisdom  and 

virtue ; 
Armaiti  herself,  the  Eternal,  gave  to  their  bodies 
Vigour ;  e'  en  thou  wert  enriched  by  the  gifts  that  she  scatttered, 

0  Mazda. 

Mazda,  the  time  will  come  when  the  crimes  of  the  bad  shall  be 
punished ; 

Then  shall  thy  power  be  displayed  in  fitly  rewarding  the  right- 
eous— 

Them  that  have  bound  and  delivered  up  falsehood  to  Asha  the 
Truth-God. 

Let  us  then  be  of  those  who  advance  this  world  and  improve  it, 
0  Ahura-Mazda,  0  Truth-God  bliss  conferring ! 
Let  our  minds  be  ever  there  where  wisdom  abideth  ! 


96  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Then  indeed  shall  be  seen  the  fall  of  pernicious  falsehood ; 
But  in  the  house  where  dwell  Vohu-ruano,  Mazda,  and  Asha — 
Beautiful  house — shall  be  gathered  for  ever  such  as  are  worthy. 

0  men,  if  you  but  cling  to  the  precepts  Mazda  has  given, 
Precepts,  which  to  the  bad  are  a  torment,  but  joy  to  the  righteous, 
Then  shall  you  one  day  find  yourselves  victorious  through  them." 

Our  other  specimen  is  taken  from  the  "Yasna,"  or 
"  Book  on  Sacrifice,"  and  is  probably  some  centuries 
later  than  the  great  bulk  of  the  Gathas1 : — 

' '  We  worship  Ahura-Mazda,  the  pure,  the  master  of  purity : 
We  worship  the  Amesha-Spentas,  possessors  and  givers  of  bless- 
ings: 

We  worship  the  whole  creation  of  Him  who  is  True,  the  heavenly, 

With  the  terrestrial,  all  that  supports  the  good  creation, 

All  that  favours  the  spread  of  the  good  Mazd-yasna2  religion. 

We  praise  whatever  is  good  in  thought,  in  word,  or  in  action, 
Past  or  future ;  we  also  keep  clean  whatever  is  excellent. 

0  Ahura-mazda,  thou  true  and  happy  being ! 

We  strive  both  to  think,  and  to  speak,  and  to  do  whatever  is  fittest 

Both  our  lives3  to  preserve,  and  bring  them  both  to  perfection. 

Holy  Spirit  of  Earth,  for  our  best  works' 4  sake,  we  entreat  thee, 
Grant  us  beautiful  fertile  fields — aye,  grant  them  to  all  men, 
Believers   and  unbelievers,   the  wealthy   and   those   that   have 
nothing." 

1  Haug,  "Essays,"  pp.  1G2,  163. 

2  "Mazd-yasna"  means  "  Ahura-mazda  worshipping."  Mazdisn 
was  used  commonly  to  designate  the  orthodox,  under  the  Sassa- 
nians. 

3  The  two  lives  are  "the  life  of  the  soul"  and  "  the  life  of  the 
body"  (Hang,  "Essays,"  1.  s.  c). 

4  i.  e.  "our  agricultural  labours"  (ibid.). 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians. 


97 


The  religion  of  the  early  Iranians  became  corrupted 
after  a  time  by  an  admixture  of  foreign  superstitions. 
The  followers  of  Zoroaster,  as  they  spread  themselves 
from  their  original  seat  upon  the  Oxus  over  the 
regions  lying  south  and  south-west  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  were  brought  into  contact  with  a  form  of  faith 
considerably  different  from  that  to  which  they  had 
previously  been  attached,  yet  well  adapted  for  blend- 


FIRE     ALTARS. 


ing  with  it.  This  was  Magism,  or  the  worship  of 
the  elements.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Armenia, 
Cappadocia,  and  the  Zagros  mountain-range,  had, 
under  circumstances  that  are  unknown  to  us,  devel- 
oped this  form  of  religion,  and  had  associated  with 
its  tenets  a  priest-caste,  claiming  prophetic  powers, 


98  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

and  a  highly  sacerdotal  character.  The  essentials  of 
the  religion  Avere  these :  the  four  elements,  fire,  air, 
earth,  and  water,  were  recognised  as  the  only  proper 
objects  of  human  reverence.  Personal  gods,  and 
together  with  them  temples,  shrines,  and  .images, 
were  rejected.  The  devotion  of  the  worshippers  was 
paid,  not  to  any  powers  presiding  over  the  constituent 
parts  of  nature,  but  to  those  constituent  parts  them- 
selves. Fire,  as  the  most  subtle  and  ethereal  prin- 
ciple, and  again  as  the  most  powerful  agent,  attracted 
especial  regard  ;  and  on  the  fire-altars  of  the  Magians 
the  sacred  flame,  generally  regarded  as  kindled  from 
heaven,  was  kept  uninterruptedly  burning  from  year 
to  year,  and  from  age  to  age,  by  bands  of  priests, 
whose  special  duty  it  was  to  see  that  the  sacred  spark 
was  never  extinguished.  To  defile  the  altar  by 
blowing  the  flame  with  one's  breath  was  a  capital 
offence,  and  to  burn  a  corpse  was  regarded  as  equally 
odious.  When  victims  were  offered,  nothing  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  fat  was  consumed  in  the  flames. 
Next  to  fire,  water  was  reverenced.  Sacrifice  was 
offered  to  rivers,  lakes,  and  fountains,  the  victim 
being  brought  near  to  them  and  then  slain,  while 
the  utmost  care  was  taken  that  no  drop  of  their 
blood  should  touch  the  water  and  pollute  it.  No 
refuse  was  allowed  to  be  cast  into  a  river,  nor  was 
it  even  lawful  to  wash  one's  hands  in  one.  Rever- 
ence for  earth  was  shown  by  sacrifice  and  by  absten- 
tion from  the  usual  mode  of  burying  the  dead.1 

i  The  chief  authorities  for  this  description  are  Herodotus  (i. 
132),  Strabo  (xv.  3,  \  \  13,  14),  and  Agathias  (ii.  24). 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.  99 

The  Magian  priest-caste  held  an  exalted  position. 
No  worshipper  could  perform  any  rite  of  the  religion 
unless  by  the  intervention  of  a  priest,  who  stood 
between  him  and  the  Deity  as  a  mediator.1  The 
Magus  prepared  the  victim  and  slew  it,  chanted  the 
mystic  strain  which  gave  the  sacrifice  all  its  force, 
poured  on  the  ground  the  propitiatory  libation  of 
oil,  milk,  and  honey,  and  held  the  bundle  of  thin 
tamarisk  twigs,  the  barsom  (baresma)  of  the  later 
Zend  books,  the  employment  of  which  was  essential 
to  every  sacrificial  ceremony.2  Claiming  super- 
natural powers,  they  explained  omens,  expounded 
dreams,  and  by  means  of  a  certain  mysterious  mani- 
pulation of  the  barsom,  or  bundle  of  tamarisk-twigs,3 
arrived  at  a  knowledge  of  future  events,  which  they 
would  sometimes  condescend  to  communicate  to  the 
pious  inquirer. 

With  such  pretensions  it  was  natural  that  the 
caste  should  assume  a  lofty  air,  a  stately  dress,  and 
an  environment  of  ceremonial  magnificence.  Clad  in 
white  robes,  and  bearing  upon  their  heads  tall  felt  caps, 
with  long  lappets  at  the  sides,  which  (we  are  told4) 
concealed  the  jaw  and  even  the  lips,  each  with  his 
barsom  in  his  hand,  they  marched  in  procession  to 
the  fire-altars,  and  standing  round  them  performed 
for  an  hour  at  a  time  their  magical  incantations.  The 
credulous  multitude,  impressed  by  sights  of  this  kind, 

1  Herod.  1.  s.  c. ;  Amm.  Marc,  xxiii.  6. 

2  Strabo,  1.  s.  c. 

3  Dino,  Fr.  8;  Schol.  ad.  Nic.  Ther.  613. 

*  Strabo,  xv.  3,  \  15;  Diog.  Laert.  V  Proem." 


100  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

and  imposed  on  by  the  claims  to  supernatural  powers 
which  the  Magi  put  forward,  paid  them  a  willing 
homage;  the  kings  and  chiefs  consulted  them;  and 


MAGIAN   PRIEST. 


when  the  Iranians,  pressing  westward,  came  into 
contact  with  the  races  professing  the  Magian  religion, 
they  found  the  Magian  priest-caste  all-powerful  in 
most  of  the  western  nations. 

Originally  Zoroastrianism  had  been  intolerant  and 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.         101 

exclusive.  Its  first  professors  had  looked  with 
aversion  and  contempt  on  the  creed  of  their  Indian 
brethren  ;  they  had  been  fierce  opponents  of  idolatry, 
and  absolutely  hostile  to  every  form  of  religion  ex- 
cept that  which  they  had  themselves  worked  out. 
But  with  the  lapse  of  time  these  feelings  had  grown 
weaker.  The  old  religious  fervour  had  abated.  An 
impressible  and  imitative  spirit  had  developed  itself. 
When  the  Zoroastrians  came  into  contact  with  Mag- 
ism,  it  impressed  them  favourably.  There  was  no 
contradiction  between  its  main  tenets  and  those  of 
their  old  religion ;  they  were  compatible,  and  might 
readily  be  held  together;  and  the  result  was,  that, 
without  giving  up  any  part  of  their  previous  creed, 
the  Iranians  adopted  and  added  on  to  it  all  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  the  Magian  belief,  and  all  the  more 
remarkable  of  the  Magian  religious  usages.  This 
religious  fusion  seems  first  to  have  taken  place  in 
Media.  The  Magi  became  a  Median  tribe,1  and 
were  adopted  as  the  priest-caste  of  the  Median  na- 
tion. Elemental  worship,  divination  by  means  of 
the  barsom,  dream-expounding,  incantations  at  the 
fire-altars,  sacrifices  whereat  a  Magus  officiated,  were 
added  on  to  the  old  dualism  and  qualified  worship  of 
the  Amesha-Spentas,  of  Mithra,  and  of  the  other 
ahuras;  and  a  mixed  or  mongrel  religion  was  thus 
formed,  which  long  struggled  with,  and  ultimately 
prevailed  over,  pure  Zoroastrianism.2     The  Persians 

i  Herod,  i.  101. 

2  See  Westergaard's  "Introduction  to  the  Zendavesta,"  p.  17; 
and  compare  the  Author's  "Essay  on  the  Keligion  of  the  Ancient 
Persians"  in  his  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  pp.  414-419,  3rd  edition. 


102  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

after  a  time  came  into  this  belief,  accepted  the  Magi 
for  their  priests,  and  attended  the  ceremonies  at  the 
fire-altars. 

The  adoption  of  elemental  worship  into  the  Ira- 
nian system  produced  a  curious  practice  with  regard 
to  dead  bodies.  It  became  unlawful  to  burn  them, 
since  that  would  be  a  pollution  of  fire ;  or  to  bury 
them,  thereby  polluting  earth ;  or  to  throw  them  into 
a  river,  thereby  polluting  water;  or  even  to  place 
them  in  a  sepulchral  chamber,  or  a  sarcophagus,  since 
that  would  cause  a  pollution  of  air.  What,  then, 
was  to  be  done  with  them  ?  In  what  way  were  they 
to  be  disposed  of?  Some  races  of  men,  probably 
moved  by  these  scruples,  adopted  the  practice,  which 
they  regarded  as  eminently  pious,  of  killing  those 
who,  they  suspected,  were  about  to  die,  and  then 
eating  them.1  But  the  Iranians  had  reached  that 
stage  of  civilisation  when  cannibalism  is  held  to  be 
disgusting.  Disinclined  to  devour  their  dead  them- 
selves, they  hit  on  an  expedient  which,  without  re- 
quiring them  to  do  what  they  so  much  disliked,  had 
the  same  result — transferred,  that  is,  the  bodies  of 
their  departed  friends  into  those  of  other  living  or- 
ganisms, and  so  avoided  the  pollution  of  any  element 
by  their  decaying  remains.  Immediately  after  death 
they  removed  the  bodies  to  a  solitary  place,  and  left 
them  to  be  devoured  by  beasts  and  birds  of  prey, 
crows,  ravens,  vultures,  wolves,  jackals,  and  foxes. 
This  was  the  orthodox  practice,2  was  employed  by 

1  Herod,  i.  216;  iii.  99. 

2  Strabo,  xv.  3,  g  20.     Compare  Herod,  i.  140. 


The  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Iranians.         103 

the  Magi  themselves  in  the  case  of  their  own  dead, 
and  was  earnestly  recommended  to  others ; *  but  as  it 
was  found  that,  despite  all  exhortations,  there  were 
some  whose  prejudices  would  not  allow  them  to 
adopt  this  method,  another  had  to  be  devised  and 
allowed,  though  not  recommended.  This  was  the 
coating  of  the  dead  body  with  wax  previously  to  its 
deposition  in  the  ground.2  Direct  contact  between 
the  corpse  and  the  earth  being  in  this  way  prevented, 
pollution  was  supposed  to  be  avoided. 

The  mixed  religion  thus  constituted,  though  less 
elevated  and  less  pure  than  the  original  Zoroastrian 
creed,  must  be  pronounced  to  have  possessed  a  certain 
loftiness  and  picturesqueness  which  suited  it  to  be- 
come the  religion  of  a  great  and  splendid  monarchy. 
The  mysterious  fire-altars  upon  the  mountain-tops, 
with  their  prestige  of  a  remote  antiquity — the  ever- 
burning flame  believed  to  have  been  kindled  from 
on  high — the  worship  in  the  open  air  under  the  blue 
canopy  of  heaven — the  long  troops  of  Magians  in 
their  white  robes,  with  their  strange  caps,  and  their 
mystic  wands — the  frequent  prayers,  the  abundant 
sacrifices,  the  low  incantations — the  supposed  pro- 
phetic powers  of  the  priest-caste — all  this  together 
constituted  an  imposing  whole  at  once  to  the  eye  and 
to  the  mind,  and  was  calculated  to  give  additional 
grandeur  to  the  civil  system  that  should  be  allied 
with  it.  Pure  Zoroastrianism  was  too  spiritual  to 
coalesce  readily  with  Oriental  luxury  and  magnifi- 

1  "  Vendidad,"  Farg.  v.  to  viii. 

2  Herod.  1.  s.  c. ;   Strabo,  1.  s.  c. 


104  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

cence,  or  to  lend  strength  to  a  government  based  on 
the  principles  of  Asiatic  despotism.  Magism  fur- 
nished a  hierarchy  to  support  the  throne  and  add 
splendour  and  dignity  to  the  court  while  it  overawed 
the  subject  class  by  its  supposed  possession  of  super- 
natural powers  and  of  the  right  of  mediating  between 
man  and  God.  It  supplied  a  picturesque  worship, 
which  at  once  gratified  the  senses  and  excited  the 
fancy.  It  gave  scope  to  man's  passion  for  the  mar- 
vellous by  its  incantations,  its  divining-rods,  its 
omen-reading,  and  its  dream-expounding.  It  grati- 
fied the  religious  scrupulosity  which  finds  a  pleasure 
in  making  to  itself  difficulties,  by  the  disallowance  of 
a  thousand  natural  acts,  and  the  imposition  of  num- 
berless rules  for  external  purity.  At  the  same  time 
it  gave  no  offence  to  the  anti-idolatrous  spirit  in 
which  the  Iranians  had  always  gloried,  but  upheld 
and  encouraged  the  iconoclasm  which  they  had  pre- 
viously practised.  It  thus  blended  easily  with  the 
previous  creed  of  the  Iranian  people,  and  produced  an 
amalgam  that  has  shown  a  surprising  vitality,  having 
lasted  above  two  thousand  years — from  the  time  of 
Xerxes,  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (b.  c.  485-465) 
to  the  present  day. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  EARLY  SANSKRITIC  INDIANS. 

"  Le  panth&sme  naturaliste  et  le  polytheisme,  sa  consequence 
inevitable,  s'etaient  graduellement  introduits  dans  les  croyances 
des  Aryas."— Lenormant,  Manuel  d'Histoire  Ancienne,  vol.  iii.  p.  309. 

rpHE  religion  of  the  early  Indians,  like  that  of 
-*-  the  Egyptians,  and  like  that  of  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians,  was  an  extensive  polytheism,  but  a 
polytheism  of  a  very  peculiar  character.  There  lay 
behind  it,  at  its  first  formation,  no  conscious  mono- 
theism, no  conception  of  a  single  supreme  power, 
from  whom  man  and  nature,  and  all  the  forces  in 
nature,  have  their  origin.  If  we  hold,  as  I  believe 
we  do  right  to  hold,  that  God  revealed  Himself  to 
the  first  parents  of  the  human  race  as  a  single  per- 
sonal being,  and  so  that  all  races  of  men  had  at  the 
first  this  idea  as  an  inheritance  handed  down  to  them 
traditionally  from  their  ancestors,  yet  it  would  seem 
certain  that  in  India,  before  the  religion  which  we 
find  in  the  Vedas  arose,  this  belief  had  completely 
faded  away  and  disappeared  ;  the  notion  of  "  God  " 
had  passed  into  the  notion  of  "  gods ; "  a  real  poly- 
theism universally  prevailed,  even  with  the  highest 

105 


106  Tlie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

class  of  intellects  ;l  and  when,  in  the  course  of  time, 
monotheistic  ideas  showed  themselves,  they  sprang 
up  in  individual  minds  as  the  results  of  individual 
speculation,2  and  were  uttered  tentatively,  not  as  doc- 
trines, but  as  hypotheses,  as  timid  "  guesses  at  truth," 
on  the  part  of  those  who  confessed  that  they  knew 
little  or  nothing. 

If  it  be  asked  how  this  forgetfulness  came  about, 
how  the  idea  of  one  God,  once  possessed,  could  ever 
be  lost,  perhaps  we  may  find  an  answer  in  that  fact  to 
which  the  traditions  of  the  race  and  some  of  their 
peculiar  expressions3  point  back,  that  for  many  cen- 
turies they  had  been  located  in  one  of  the  cruellest 
regions  of  the  earth,  a  region  with  "  ten  months  of 
winter  and  two  months  of  summer,"4  where  the 
struggle  for  existence  must  have  been  terrible  indeed, 
and  all  their  energies,  all  their  time,  all  their  thought, 
must  have  been  spent  on  the  satisfaction  of  those 
physical  needs  for  which  provision  must  be  made  be- 
fore man  can  occupy  himself  with  the  riddle  of  the 
universe.  At  any  rate,  however  we  may  account  for 
it,  or  whether  we  can  account  for  it  or  no,  the  fact 
remains ;  somehow  or  other  the  Sanskritic  Indians 
had   ceased  to  "retain  God  in  their  knowledge;"5 

1  See  Max  Miiller,  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  pp.528,  529. 

2  Ibid.  p.  559. 

3  As  the  expression,  "a  hundred  tvinters,"  used  for  a  hundred 
years.  (See  H.  H.  Wilson's  "Introduction  to  the  Rig-Veda," 
vol.  i.  p.  xlii.) 

4  See  the  description  of  "Aryanem  vaejo" — the  old  home  of 
the  Aryans — in  the  First  Fargard  of  the  "  Vendidad"  ("Ancient 
Monarchies,"  vol.  ii.  p.  432). 

&  Romans  i.  28. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sansforitic  Indians.      107 

they  were  for  a  time  "without  God  in  the  world," 
they  had  lost  the  sense  of  His  "  eternal  power  and 
Godhead  ; " l  they  were  in  the  condition  that  men 
would  be  in  who  should  be  veritable  "  children  of  the 
soil,"  springing  into  life  without  inheritance  of  an- 
cestral notions. 

But  there  was  one  thing  which"1  they  could  not  be 
without.  God  has  implanted  in  all  men  a  religious 
faculty,  a  religious  instinct,  which  is  an  essential 
portion  of  their  nature  and  among  the  faculties  which 
most  distinguish  man  from  the  brutes.  No  sooner 
was  the  tension  produced  by  the  severe  character  of 
their  surroundings  relaxed — no  sooner  did  the  plains 
of  the  Punjab  receive  the  previous  dwellers  in  the 
Hindu  Kush — than  this  instinct  asserted  itself,  per- 
ceived that  there  was  something  divine  in  the  world, 
and  proceeded  to  the  manufacture  of  deities.  Nature 
seemed  to  the  Hindoo  not  to  be  one,  but  many  ;  and 
all  nature  seemed  to  be  wonderful  and,  so,  divine. 
The  sky,  the  air,  the  dawn,  the  sun,  the  earth,  the 
moon,  the  wind,  the  storms,  fire,  the  waters,  the 
rivers,  attracted  his  attention,  charmed  him,  some- 
times terrified  him,  seemed  to  him  instinct  with 
power  and  life,  became  to  him  objects  of  admiration 
and  then  of  worship.  At  first,  it  would  appear,  the 
objects  themselves  were  adored  ;  but  the  objects  re- 
ceived names  ;  the  names  were,  by  the  laws  of  Indian 
grammar,  masculine  or  feminine ;  and  the  named 
objects  thus  passed  into  persons,2  the  nomina  became 

1  Romans  i.  20. 

2  Max  Miiller,  "  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,"  pp.  54-56* 


108  The  Religious  of  the  Ancient  World. 

numina,  beings  quite  distinct  from  the  objects  them- 
selves, presiding  over  them,  directing  them,  ruling 
them,  but  having  a  separate  and  another  kind  of 
existence. 

And  now  the  polytheism,  already  sufficiently  ex- 
tensive through  the  multiplicity  of  things  natural, 
took  a  fresh  start.  The  names,  having  become  per- 
sons, tended  to  float  away  from  the  objects ;  and  the 
objects  received  fresh  names,  which  in  their  turn 
were  exalted  into  gods,  and  so  swelled  the  pantheon. 
When  first  the  idea  of  counting  the  gods  presented 
itself  to  the  mind  of  a  Vedic  poet,  and  he  subjected 
them  to  a  formal  census,  he  found  them  to  amount  to 
no  more  than  thirty-three.1  But  in  course  of  time 
this  small  band  swelled  into  a  multitude,  and  Visva- 
mitra,  a  somewhat  late  poet,  states  the  number  at 
3,339.2 

One  of  the  features  most  clearly  pronounced  in  the 
Vedic  polytheism  is  that  which  has  been  already 
noticed  as  obtaining  to  a  considerable  extent  both  in 
the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  religions,3  the  feature 
which  has  been  called  "  Kathenotheism  "  or  "  Heno- 
theism." 4  A  Vedic  worshipper,  for  the  most  part, 
when  he  turned  his  regards  towards  any  individual 
deity,  forgot  for  the  time  being  that  there  was  any 
other,   and   addressed  the  immediate  object  of  his 

1  Rig- Veda,  viii.  30.     (See  Max  Miillers  "Ancient  Sanskrit 
Literature,"  p.  531. )# 

2  "Rig- Veda  Sanhita"  (translation  of  H.  H.  Wilson),  vol.  iii.  p.  7. 

3  See  above,  pp.  40  and  56. 

*  Max  Muller,  "Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  i.  p.  28; 
"Science  of  Religion,"  p.  141. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      109 

adoration  in  terms  of  as  absolute  devotion  as  if  he 
were  the  sole  God  whom  he  recognised,  the  one  and 
only  Divine  Being  in  the  entire  universe.  "  In  the 
first  hymn  of  the  second  Mandala,  the  god  Agni  is 
called  '  the  ruler  of  the  universe/  '  the  lord  of  men/ 
'  the  wise  king,  the  father,  the  brother,  the  son,  the 
friend  of  man ; '  nay,  all  the  powers  and  names  of 
the  other  gods  are  distinctly  assigned  to  Agni."1 
Similarly,  in  another  hymn,  Varuna  is  "'the  wise 
god/  the  '  lord  of  all/  '  the  lord  of  heaven  and  earth/ 
i  the  upholder  of  order/  '  he  who  gives  to  men  glory.' 2 
It  is  the  same  with  Indra — he  is  '  the  ruler  of  all 
that  moves/  the  '  mighty  one/  *  he  to  whom  there  is 
none  like  in  heaven  or  earth:'"3  "  the  gods,"  it  is 
said,  "do  not  reach  thee,  Indra,  nor  men;  thou 
overcomest  all  creatures  in  strength."  The  best 
authority  tells  us  that  "  it  would  be  easy  to  find,  in 
the  numerous  hymns  of  the  Veda,  passages  in  which 
almost  every  important  deity  is  represented  as  su- 
preme and  absolute." 4  At  the  same  time  there  is  no 
rivalry,  no  comparison  of  one  god  with  another,  no 
conflict  of  opinion  between  the  votaries  of  different 
deities ;  each  is  supreme  and  absolute  in  his  turn, 
simply  because  "all  the  rest  disappear  for  a  moment 
from  the  vision  of  the  poet,  and  he  only  who  is  to 
fulfil  their  desires  stands  in  full  light  before  the  eyes 
of  the  worshippers."5 

1  "Chips,"  1.  s.  c.  %> 

2  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  pp.  536,  537. 

3  Ibid.  p.  546. 

*  "Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  p.  28. 
&  Ibid. 


110  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Among  the  various  deities  thus,  in  a  certain  sense, 
equalised,  there  are  three  who  may  be  said  to  occupy, 
if  not  the  chief,  at  any  rate  the  oldest  place,  since 
their  names  have  passed  out  of  the  sphere  of  mere 
appellatives,  and  have  become  proper  names,  the 
designations  of  distinct  persons.  These  are  Varuna, 
Mitra,  and  Indra — originally,  the  Sky,  the  Sun,  and 
the  Storm  (or,  perhaps,  the  Day) — but,  in  the  Vedic 
hymns,  only  slightly  connected  with  any  particular 
aspects  of  nature,  and  not  marked  off  by  any  strong 
differences  the  one  from  the  other.  Indra,  indeed,  is 
the  main  object  of  adoration ;  more  than  one-third 
of  the  hymns  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Rig- Veda  are 
addressed  to  him.1  He  is  "the  sovereign  of  the 
world,"  "the  all-wise,"  "the  abode  of  truth,"  "the 
lord  of  the  good,"  "  the  animator  of  all,"  "  the  show- 
erer  of  benefits,"  "  the  fulfiller  of  the  desire  of  him 
who  offers  praise ;" 2  and,  with  more  or  less  of  refer- 
ence to  his  original  character,  "  the  sender  of  rain," 
"  the  giver  of  food,"  "  the  lord  of  opulence,"  and 
"  the  wielder  of  the  thunderbolt." 3  Varuna  is  more 
sparingly  addressed;  but,  when  addressed,  is  put 
quite  upon  a  par  with  Indra,  joined  with  him  in  such 
phrases  as  "  sovereign  Indra  and  Varuna,"  "  Indra 
and  Varuna,  sovereign  rulers,"  "  divine  Indra  and 

1  Forty-five  in  the  first  Astaka,  out  of  121 ;  39  in  the  second, 
out  of  118;  48  in  the  third,  out  of  121 ;  and  46  in  fourth,  out  of 
140— altogether  178  out  of  502.  (See  the  "Introduction"  of 
Prof.  II.  II.  Wilson  to  his  "Translation  of  the  Rig- Veda  Sanhita.") 

2  Rig- Veda,  vol.  ii.  pp.  36,  145,  283;  vol.  iii.  pp.  157,  159, 
and  16H. 

s  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  283;  vol.  iii.  pp.  157  and  160. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      Ill 

Varuna,"  "  mighty  Inclra  and  Yaruna," l  etc.,  and 
entreated  to  afford  the  worshipper,  equally  with 
Indra,  protection,  long  life,  riches,  sons  and  grand- 
sons, happiness.  Mitra  is  the  usual  companion  of 
Yaruna,  sharing  with  him  in  the  fifth  Mandala 
eleven  consecutive  hymns,2  and  elsewhere  joined  with 
him  frequently;3  they  are  "observers  of  truth," 
"  imperial  rulers  of  the  world,"  "  lords  of  heaven  and 
truth,"  "  protectors  of  the  universe,"  "  mighty  deities," 
"far-seeing,"  "excelling  in  radiance  ;"4  they  "uphold 
the  three  realms  of  light,"  "  scatter  foes,"  "  guide 
men  in  the  right  way,"  "  send  rain  from  heaven," 
"grant  men  their  desires,"5  "procure  for  them 
exceeding  and  perfect  felicity." 6  They  ride  together 
in  one  chariot,  which  "  shines  in  the  firmament  like 
lightning;"7  they  sustain  the  sun  in  his  course,  and 
conjointly  cause  the  rain  to  fall ;  they  are  "possessed 
of  irresistible  strength," 8  and  uphold  the  celestial  and 
terrestrial  worlds." 9  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
Mitra  was  once  the  sun,  as  Mithra  always  was  in 
Persia ; 10  but  in  the  hymns  of  the  Rig-Yeda  he  has 
passed  out   of  that   subordinate   position,   and   has 

1  "Rig-Veda,"  vol.  i.  p.  40;  vol.  iii.  pp.  63,  201,  203,  etc. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  pp.  347-357. 

3  As  in  vol.  i.  pp.  7,   117,  and  230;  vol.  ii.  pp.  3-6,  53-55, 
59,  etc. 

4  Wilson's  "Introduction,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  349-354. 

5  Wilson's  "Introduction,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  354-356. 

6  Ibid.  p.  349.  7  Ibid.  p.  348. 

8  Ibid.  pp.  353,  354. 

9  Ibid.  p.  356. 

10  See  the  Author's  "  Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  ii.  p.  328;  vol. 
iii.  pp.  348  and  352. 


112  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

become  a  god  who  sustains  the  sun,  and  who  has  a 
general  power  over  the  elements.  His  place  as  the 
actual  sun-god  has  been  taken  by  another  and  dis- 
tinct deity,  of  whom  more  will  be  said  presently. 

Next  to  these  three  gods,  whose  character  is  rather 
general  than  special,  must  be  placed  Agni — the 
Latin  ignis — who  is  distinctly  the  god  of  fire.  Fire 
presented  itself  to  the  early  Indians  under  a  twofold 
aspect;1  first,  as  it  exists  on  earth,  on  the  hearth,  on 
the  altar,  and  in  the  conflagration ;  secondly,  as  it 
exists  in  the  sky,  in  the  shape  of  lightning,  meteors, 
stars,  comets,  and  light  generally,  so  far  as  that  is 
independent  of  the  sun.  The  earthly  aspect  of  fire 
is  most  dwelt  upon.  The  Vedic  poet  sees  it  leaping 
forth  from  darkness  on  the  rapid  friction  of  two 
sticks  in  the  hands  of  a  strong  man.  It  is  greedy 
for  food  as  it  steps  forth  out  of  its  prison,  it  snorts 
like  a  horse  as  with  loud  crackle  it  seizes  and  spreads 
among  the  fuel.  Then  for  a  moment  its  path  is 
darkened  by  great  folds  of  smoke ;  but  it  overcomes, 
it  triumphs,  and  mounts  up  in  a  brilliant  column  of 
pure  clear  flame  into  the  sky.2  As  culinary  fire, 
Agni  is  the  supporter  of  life,  the  giver  of  strength 
and  vigour,  the  imparter  of  a  pleasant  flavour  to 
food,3  the  diffuser  of  happiness  in  a  dwelling.  As 
sacrificial  fire,  he  is  the  messenger  between  the  other 

1  Wilson  says  "a  three-fold  aspect"  ("Introduction  to  Rig- 
Veda,"  vol.  i.  p.  xxvii  ),  distinguishing  between  the  region  of  the 
air  and  that  of  the  sky ;  but  the  Vedic  poets  scarcely  make  this 
distinction. 

2  See  "Max  Miiller,  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  547,  note. 

3  Rig-Veda,  vol.  iii.  pp.  184,  247,  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      113 

gods  and  man ;  the  interpreter  to  the  other  gods  of 
human  wants;  the  all- wise,  who  knows  every  thought 
of  the  worshipper ;  the  bestower  of  all  blessings  on 
men,  since  it  is  by  his  intervention  alone  that  their 
offerings  are  conveyed,  and  their  wishes  made  known 
to  any  deity.  As  conflagration,  Agni  is  "  the  con- 
sumer of  forests,  the  dark-pathed,  the  bright-shin- 
ing." l  "  White-hued,  vociferous,  abiding  in  the 
firmament  with  the  imperishable  resounding  winds, 
the  youngest  of  the  gods,  Agni,  purifying  and  most 
vast,  proceeds,  feeding  upon  numerous  and  substan- 
tial forests.  His  bright  flames,  fanned  by  the  wind, 
spread  wide  in  every  direction,  consuming  abundant 
fuel ;  divine,  fresh-rising,  they  play  upon  the  woods, 
enveloping  them  in  lustre."  2  Occasionally,  instead 
of  consuming  forests,  he  devours  cities  with  their  in- 
habitants. When  the  Aryan  Indians  prevail  over 
their  enemies  and  give  their  dwellings  to  the  flames, 
it  is  Agni  who  "  destroys  the  ancient  towns  of  the 
dispersed," 3  and  "  consumes  victorious  all  the  cities 
of  the  foe  and  their  precious  things." 4  Hence,  he  is 
constantly  invoked  against  enemies,  and  exhorted  to 
overthrow  them,  to  give  their  cities  to  destruction,  to 
"  burn  them  down  like  pieces  of  dry  timber," 5  to 
chastise  them  and  "  consume  them  entirely."  In  his 
celestial  character,  Agni,  on  the  other  hand,  is,  com- 
paratively speaking,  but   rarely    recognized.      Still, 

1  Rig- Veda,  p.  391. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  iii.     Compare  pp.  136,  254,  385,  etc. 
■  Ibid.  p.  388. 

*  Ibid.  p.  16.  «  Ibid.  p.  126. 

8 


114  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

his  frequent  association  with  Indra  l  points  to  this 
aspect  of  him.  Both  he  and  Indra  are  "  wielders  of 
the  thunderbolt ;" 2  they  occupy  a  common  car;3 
they  are  joint  "  slayers  of  Yitra ; " 4  and  Agni  is  de- 
scribed in  once  place  as  "  the  agitator  of  the 
clouds  when  the  rain  is  poured  forth/'  he  who, 
"  moving  with  the  swiftness  of  the  wind,  shines  with 
a  pure  radiance ;  "  whose  "  falling  rays,  accompanied 
by  the  moving  storms,  strike  against  the  cloud," 
which  thereupon  "  roars,"  after  which  "  the  shower 
comes  with  delightful  and  smiling  drops,  the  rain 
descends,  the  clouds  thunder."  5 

After  Agni  we  may  place  in  a  single  group,  Dyaus, 
"the  heaven;"  Surya,  or  Savitri,  "the  sun;"  Soma, 
"  the  moon  ;"  Ushas,  "  the  dawn ;"  Prithivi,  "  the 
earth  ;"  Yayu,  "  the  wind ;"  Ap,  "  the  waters ;"  Nadi, 
"  the  rivers ;"  and  the  Maruts,  "  the  storms."  These 
are  all  nature-gods  of  a  very  plain  and  simple  kind, 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  Uranus,  Heelios,  Selene, 
Eos,  Ge,  or  Gaia,  etc.,  and  to  the  Roman  Coelus, 
Apollo,  Luna,  Aurora,  Tellus,  iEolus,  etc.  Of  all 
these  the  Maruts  are  the  most  favourite  objects  of  wor- 
ship, having  twenty-four  hymns  devoted  to  them  in 
the  first  six  Mandalas  of  the  Rig- Veda.6     Next  to 

1  Mandala  i.  21,  108;  Mandala  Hi.  12;  Mandala  v.  14;  Man- 
dala  vi.  59 ;    etc. 

2  Rig-Veda,  vol.  iii.  p.  500, 

3  Ibid.  p.  501. 

*  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  pp.  Ill,  503,  etc. 
5  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  202. 

e  See  Wilson's  "Introductions"  to  the  several  volumes  of  the 
Rig- Veda  Sanhita,  vol.  i.  p.  15;  vol.  iii.  p.  7. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritie  Indians.      115 

these  may  be  placed  Ushas,  who  has  eleven  hymns ; 
then  Dyaus  and  Prithivi,  who  share  seven  hymns ; 
after  these  Surya,  who  has  six ;  then  Vayu,  who  has 
two ;  then  Soma,  who  has  one  ;  and  lastly,  Ap  and 
Nadi,  who  are  not  worshipped  separately  at  all. 
Ushas,  the  dawn,  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  crea- 
tion of  the  Yedic  bards.  "She  is  the  friend  of  men; 
she  smiles  like  a  young  wife;  she  is  the  daughter  of 
the  sky.  She  goes  to  every  house;  she  thinks  of  the 
dwellings  of  men ;  she  does  not  despise  the  small  or 
the  great;  she  brings  wealth  ;  she  is  always  the  same, 
immortal,  divine ;  age  cannot  touch  her ;  she  is  the 
young  goddess,  but  she  makes  men  grow  old."1  Born 
again  and  again,  and  with  bright  unchanging  hues, 
she  dissipates  the  accumulated  glooms,  anoints  her 
beauty  as  the  priests  anoint  the  sacrificial  food  in  sacri- 
fices, bright-shining  she  smiles,  like  a  flatterer,  to 
obtain  favour,  then  lights  up  the  world,  spreads,  ex- 
panding westward  with  her  radiance,  awakes  men  to 
consciousness,  calls  forth  the  pleasant  sounds  of  bird 
and  beast,  arouses  all  things  that  have  life  to  their 
several  labours.2  Sometimes  a  mere  natural  appear- 
ance, more  often  a  manifest  goddess,  she  comes  before 
men  day  after  day  with  ever  young  and  fresh  beauty, 
challenging  their  admiration,  almost  forcing  them  to 
worship  her.  The  lazy  inhabitants  of  so-called  civil- 
ised lands,  who  rarely  leave  their  beds  till  the  sun 
has  been  up  for  hours,  can  scarcely  understand  the 
sentiments  with  which  a  simple  race,  that  went  to  rest 

1  Max  Miiller,  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  551. 

2  Rig- Veda,  vol.  i.  pp.  236-238  and  298,  299. 


116  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

with  the  evening  twilight,  awaited  each  morning  the 
coming  of  the  rosy-fingered  dawn,  or  the  ecstatic  joy 
with  which  they  saw  the  darkness  in  the  eastern  sky 
fade  and  lift  before  the  soft  approach  of  something 
tenderer  and  lovelier  than  day. 

Surya,  "  the  sun,"  does  not  play  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Vedic  poems.1  Out  of  the  five  hundred 
hymns  in  Wilson's  collection,  only  six  are  devoted 
to  him  exclusively.2  His  presentation  is  nearly  that 
of  Heelios  in  the  Greek,  and  Phoebus  Apollo  in  the 
Roman  mythology.  Brilliant,  many-rayed,  adora- 
ble, he  yokes  each  morning  his  two,3  or  seven,4 
swift  coursers  to  his  car,  and  mounts  up  the  steep 
incline  of  heaven,  following  Ushas,  as  a  youth  pur- 
sues a  maiden,  and  destroying  her.5  Journeying 
onward  at  incredible  speed 6  between  the  two  regions 

1  Wilson,  "  Introduction  to  Rig-Veda,"  vol.  i.  p.  xxxii. 

2  Mandala  i.  Suktas  50  and  115;  Mandala  ii.  Sukta  38;  and 
Mandala  v.  Suktas  81  and  82.  Surya  has  also  a  part  in  Mandala 
i.  Sukta  35;  Mandala  v.  Suktas  40  and  45;  and  Mandala  vi. 
Sukta  50. 

«  Rig-Veda,  vol.  i.  p.  98. 

4  Ibid.  p.  133. 

5  Ibid.  p.  304.  Compare  Max  Miiller's  "Ancient  Sanskrit 
Literature,"  pp.  529,  530,  where  the  following  comment  of  an 
Indian  critic  ia  quoted:— "It  is  fabled  that  Prajapati,  the  Lord 
of  Creation,  did  violence  to  his  daughter.  But  what  does  it  mean? 
Prajapati,  the  Lord  of  Creation,  is  a  name  of  the  sun;  and  he  is 
called  so  because  he  protects  all  creatures.  His  daughter,  Ushas, 
is  the  Dawn.  And  when  it  is  said  that  he  was  in  love  with  her, 
this  only  means  that,  at  sunrise,  the  sun  runs  after  the  dawn, 
the  dawn  being  at  the  same  time  called  the  daughter  of  the  sun, 
because  she  rises  when  he  approaches." 

a  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  132. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritie  Indians.      117 

of  heaven  and  earth,  he  pours  down  his  quickening, 
life-bestowing,  purifying  rays  on  all,  dispels  diseases,1 
gives  fertility,  and  multiplies  wealth.2  Having  at- 
tained the  summit  of  the  sky,  he  commences  his 
descent,  and  travelling  on  a  downward  path,  con- 
ducts his  car  with  safety  to  the  far  limits  of  the  west, 
carrying  off  with  him  all  the  diffused  rays  of  light,3 
and  disappearing,  no  one  knows  whither.4 

Vayu,  the  "  wind,"  generally  coupled  with  Indra, 
as  a  god  of  heaven,  has  only  two  whole  hymns,5  and 
parts  of  five  others,  devoted  to  him  in  Wilson's  col- 
lection. What  is  chiefly  celebrated  is  his  swiftness ; 
and  in  this  connection  he  has  sometimes  ninety-nine, 
sometimes  a  hundred,6  sometimes  a  thousand  steeds,7 
or  even  a  thousand  chariots,8  assigned  to  him.  The 
colour  of  his  horses  is  red  or  purple.9  He  is  "  swift 
as  thought,"  he  has  "  a  thousand  eyes,"  and  is  "  the 
protector  of  pious  acts."  10  As  one  of  the  gods  who 
"sends  rain,"11  he  is  invoked  frequently  by  the  in- 
habitants of  a  country  where  want  of  rain  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  famine. 

Dyaus  and  Prithivi,  "  heaven  "  and  "  earth,"  are 

i  Rig-Veda,  vol.  i.  pp.  99  and  134. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  pp.  307,  809,  etc. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  305. 
*  Ibid.  p.  99. 

5  Mandala  ii.  Sukta  134;  and  Mandala  vi.  Sukta  48. 

6  Rig- Veda,  vol.  iii.  p.  211. 

7  Ibid.  pp.  210  and  212.     Compare  vol.  ii.  p.  49. 

8  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  313. 

9  Ibid.  p.  40. 

10  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  55, 

11  Ibid.  vol.  iii.  p.  487. 


118  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

mostly  coupled  together,  and  addressed  in  the  same 
hymns;  but,  besides  the  joint  addresses,  Prithivi  is 
sometimes  the  sole  subject  of  a  sacred  poem.1  Dyaus 
has  occasionally  the  epithet  of  pitar,  or  "  father," 2 
and  thus,  so  far  as  the  name  goes,  undoubtedly  cor- 
responds with  the  Jupiter  or  Diespiter  of  the  Romans. 
But  he  is  certainly  not  in  the  same  way  the  "father," 
or  creator,  of  the  other  gods.  Rather,  some  indi- 
vidual poets,  in  their  craving  after  divine  sympathy 
and  communion,  have  ventured  to  bestow  on  him  the 
name  of  "  father  "  exceptionally,  not  with  any  inten- 
tion of  making  him  the  head  of  the  Pantheon,  but 
as  claiming  to  themselves  a  share  in  the  Divine  na- 
ture, and  expressing  the  same  feeling  as  the  Greek 
poet  when  he  said,  "For  we  are  also  his  offspring."3 

It  is  unnecessary  to  detain  the  reader  with  a  com- 
plete account  of  the  rest  of  the  thirty-three  gods. 
Some,  as  Aditi,  Pushan,  Brahmaspati,  Brihaspati, 
Panjaniya,  seem  to  be  mere  duplicate  or  triplicate 
names  of  deities  already  mentioned.  Others,  as  the 
Aswins,  Aryaman,  Rudra,  Vishnu,  Yama,  belong  to 
a  lower  grade,  being  rather  demigods  or  heroes  than 
actual  deities.  Others,  again,  are  indistinct,  and  of 
little  importance,  as  Saraswati,  Bhaga,  Twashtri,  Par- 
vata,  Hotra,  Bharati,  Sadi,  Varutri,  and  Dhishana. 

Special  attention  must,  however,  be  called  to  Soma. 
By  a  principle  of  combination  which  is  quite  in- 
scrutable, Soma  represents  at  once  the  moon  or  moon- 

1  Mandala  v.  Sukta  83. 

2  Max  Miiller,  "Science  of  Religion,"  p.  172. 

8  Acts  xvii.  28.     St.  Paul,  as  is  well  known,  quoted  Aratus. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indian*.      119 

god,  and  the  genius  presiding  over  a  certain  plant. 
The  assignment  of  a  sacred  character  to  the  Soma,  or 
Homa  plant  (Sarcostema  viminalis),1  was  common  to 
the  Indie  with  the  Iranian  religion,  though  the  use 
made  of  it  in  the  two  worships  was  different.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ordinary  spirit  of  the  Indie  religion,  a 
deity  was  required  to  preside  over,  or  personify,  this 
important  part  of  nature,  and  the  god  chosen  was 
the  same  that  had  the  moon  under  his  protection. 
Hence  arises,  in  the  hymns  to  Soma,  a  curious  com- 
plication ;  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  which 
view  of  the  god  is  present  to  the  mind  of  the  poet. 
The  notion  of  the  plant  is  the  predominant  one ;  but 
intermixed  with  it  in  the  strangest  way  come  touches 
which  can  only  be  explained  by  referring  them  to 
Soma's  lunar  character.2 

The  worship  of  their  gods  by  the  Indians  was  of 
a  very  simple  kind,  consisting  of  prayer,  praise,  and 
offerings.  It  was  wholly  domestic,  that  is  to  say, 
there  were  no  temples  or  general  places  of  assembly ; 
but  each  man  in  his  dwelling-house,  in  a  chamber 
devoted  to  religious  uses,  performed,  or  rather  had 
performed  for  him,  the  sacred  rites  which  he  pre- 
ferred, and  on  which  he  placed  his  dependence  for 
material  and  perhaps  for  spiritual  blessings.  An 
order  of  priests  existed,  by  whom  alone  could  re- 
ligious services  be  conducted ;  and  of  these  a  goodly 
array  officiated  on  all  occasions,  the  number  being 

1  H.  H.  Wilson,  in  notes  to  the  Rig- Veda,  vol.  i.  p.  6,  note  a. 

2  Ibid.  p.  235,  note  a. 


120  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

sometimes  seven,  at  other  times  as  many  as  sixteen.1 
It  was  not  necessary  for  the  worshipper  to  appear 
personally,  or  to  take  any  part  in  the  ceremony; 
enough  was  done  if  he  provided  the  chamber,  the 
altar,  and  the  offerings.  The  chamber  had  to  be 
spread  with  the  Kusa,  or  sacred  rushes ;  the  fire  had 
to  be  lighted  upon  the  altar ; 2  and  then  the  worship 
commenced.  Priests  chanted  in  turn  the  verses  of 
the  Mantras  or  sacred  hymns,  which  combined 
prayer  with  praise,  and  invited  the  presence  of  the 
deities.  At  the  proper  moment,  when  by  certain 
mystic  signs  the  priests  knew  the  god  or  gods  in- 
voked to  have  arrived,3  the  offerings  were  presented, 
the  divine  favour  secured,  the  prayers  recited,  and 
the  ceremony  brought  to  a  close  by  some  participa- 
tion of  the  ministering  priests  in  the  offerings. 

The  praises,  with  which  the  hymns  generally  com- 
mence, describe  the  power,  the  wisdom,  the  grandeur, 
the  marvellousness,  the  generosity,  the  goodness  of 
the  deity  addressed,  adding  in  some  instances  en- 
comiums on  his  personal  beauty4  and  the  splendour 
of   his   dress   and   decorations.5      Occasionally,    his 

1  See  Wilson's  "Introduction"  to  vol.  i.  p.  xxiv. 

2  It  has  been  questioned  whether  the  fire  was  not  kept  burning 
continually,  as  in  the  Persian  Fire  Temples  (Wilson,  "Introduc- 
tion" to  vol.  i.  of  Rig-Veda,  p.  xxiii.) ;  but  the  constant  allusions 
to  the  production  of  fire  by  friction  make  it  clear  that,  ordinarily, 
a  fresh  fire  was  kindled. 

3  Haug,  "Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  etc.,  of  the  Parsees," 
p.  248. 

4  Wilson,  "  Introduction,"  vol.  i.  p.  xxiv.  See  also  Mandala  i. 
Sukta  9,  I  3;  Sukta  42  g  10;  etc. 

'  Rig-Veda,  vol.  i.  p.  223. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      121 

great  actions  are  described,  either  in  general  terms, 
or  with  special  reference  to  certain  exploits  ascribed 
to  him  in  the  mythology.1  When  he  has  been  thus 
rendered  favourable,  and  the  offerings  have  been 
made  in  the  customary  way,  the  character  of  the 
hymn  changes  from  praise  to  prayer,  and  the  god  is 
implored  to  bestow  blessings  on  the  person  who  has 
instituted  the  ceremony,  and  sometimes,  but  not  so 
commonly,  on  the  author  or  reciter  of  the  prayer. 
It  is  noticeable  that  the  blessings  prayed  for  are, 
predominantly,  of  a  temporal  and  personal  descrip- 
tion.2 The  worshipper  asks  for  food,  life,  strength, 
health,  posterity;  for  wealth,  especially  in  cattle, 
horses,  and  cows ;  for  happiness ;  for  protection 
against  enemies,  for  victory  over  them,  and  some- 
times for  their  destruction,  particularly  where  they 
are  represented  as  heretics.  Protection  against  evil 
spirits  is  also  occasionally  requested.  There  is, 
comparatively  speaking,  little  demand  for  moral 
benefits,  for  discernment,  or  improvement  of  charac- 
ter, or  forgiveness  of  sin,  or  repentance,  or  peace  of 
mind,  or  strength,  to  resist  temptation.  The  sense 
of  guilt  is  slight.3     It  is  only  "  in  some  few  instances 

1  This  is  especially  the  case  in  hymns  addressed  to  Indra. 
(Rig-Veda,  vol.  i.  pp.  85-93,  136-139,  etc.). 

2  Wilson,  "  Introduction"  to  vol.  i.  of  Rig- Veda,  p.  xxv. ;  Max 
Miiller,  "Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  i.  p.  27. 

3  Wilson,  1.  s.  c.  Max  Midler  says,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
"the  consciousness  of  sin  is  a, prominent  feature  in  the  l-eligion  of 
the  Veda"  ("Chips,"  vol.  i.  p.  41).  He  means,  probably,  a  no- 
ticeable feature,  not  prominent  in  the  sense  of  its  occurring  fre- 
quently. 


122  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

that  hatred  of  untruth  and  abhorrence  of  sin  are 
expressed,  and  a  hope  uttered  that  the  latter  may 
be  repented  of  or  expiated." 1  Still  such  expressions 
do  occur.  They  are  not  wholly  wanting,  as  they 
are  in  the  utterances  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
"  Deliver  us  this  day,  O  gods,  from  heinous  sin,"  is 
the  concluding  petition  of  one  Sukta.2  u  May  our 
sin  be  repented  of,"  is  the  burthen  of  another.3 
"  Absolve  us  from  the  sins  of  our  fathers,  and  from 
those  which  Ave  have  committed  with  our  own 
bodies,"  is  the  prayer  of  a  third.4  "  Varuna  is  mer- 
ciful, even  to  him  who  has  committed  sin,"  is  the 
declaration  of  a  fourth.5  Now  and  then  we  even 
seem  to  have  before  us  a  broken-hearted  penitent, 
one  who  truly  feels,  like  David  or  the  Publican,  the 
depth  to  which  he  has  fallen,  and  who,  "  out  of  the 
depths," 6  cries  to  God  for  forgiveness.  "  Let  me 
not  yet,  O  Varuna,  enter  into  the  house  of  clay," 
i.  e.  the  grave,  says  a  Vedic  worshipper ; 7  "  have 
mercy,  almighty,  have  mercy.  If  I  go  along  trem- 
bling, like  a  cloud  driven  by  the  wind,  have  mercy, 
almighty,  have  mercy.  Through  want  of  strength, 
thou  strong  and  bright  god,  have  I  gone  wrong; 
have  mercy,  almighty,   have  mercy.     Thirst  came 

1  These  are  Prof.  Wilson's  words;  and  they  are  quite  borne 
out  by  the  text  of  the  Rig- Veda. 

2  Mandala  i.  Sukta  115,  \  6. 

3  Mandala  i.  Sukta  97. 

*  Mandala  vii.  Sukta  86,  \  5. 

5  Mandala  vii.  Sukta  87,  \  7. 

6  Psa.  cxxx.  1. 

7  Max  Muller,  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  p.  540. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanshritic  Indians.      123 

upon  the  worshipper  though  he  stood  in  the  midst 
of  the  waters ;  have  mercy,  almighty,  have  mercy. 
Whenever  we  men,  Yaruna,  commit  an  offence  be- 
fore the  heavenly  host,  whenever  we  break  the  law 
through  thoughtlessness ;  have  mercy,  almighty,  have 
mercy." 

The  offerings  wherewith  the  gods  were  propitiated 
were  either  victims  or  libations.  Victims  in  the 
early  times  appear  to  have  been  but  rarely  sacrificed ; 
and  the  only  animals  employed  seem  to  have  been 
the  horse  and  the  goat.1  Libations  were  of  three 
kinds :  ghee,  or  clarified  butter,  honey,2  and  the  ex- 
pressed and  fermented  juice  of  the  soma  plant.  The 
ghee  and  honey  were  poured  upon  the  sacrificial  fire ; 
the  soma  juice  was  presented  in  ladles 3  to  the  deities 
invoked,  part  sprinkled  on  the  fire,  part  on  the  Kusa, 
or  sacred  grass  strewed  upon  the  floor,  and  the  rest 
in  all  cases  drunk  by  those  who  had  conducted  the 
ceremony .4  It  is  thought  by  some  modern  critics 
that  the  liquor  offered  to  the  gods  was  believed  to 
intoxicate  them,  and  that  the  priests  took  care  to  in- 
toxicate themselves  with  the  remainder ; 5  but  there 
is  scarcely  sufficient  evidence  for  these  charges.  No 
doubt,  the  origin  of  the  Soma  ceremony  must  be  re- 
ferred to  the  exhilarating  properties  of  the  fermented 

1  On  the  sacrifice  of  these,  see  Rig- Veda,  vol.  ii.  pp.  112-125. 

2  Honey  is  not  common.    On  its  use,  see  Max  Muller,  ''Ancient 
Sanskrit  Literature,"  pp.  535  and  537. 

3  Rig  Veda,  Mandala  i.  Sukta  116,  \  24. 

*  Wilson,  "Introduction"  to  vol.  i.  of  Rig- Veda,  p.  xxiii. 
5  Haug?     "Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  etc.,  of  the  Par- 
Bees,"  pp.  247,  248. 


124  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

juice,  and  to  the  delight  and  astonishment  which 
the  discovery  of  them  excited  in  simple  minds.1 
But  exhilaration  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
drunkenness;  and,  though  Orientals  do  not  often 
draw  the  distinction,  we  are  scarcely  justified  in 
concluding,  without  better  evidence  than  any  which 
has  been  adduced  as  yet,  that  the  Soma  ceremony 
of  the  Hindoos  was  in  the  early  ages  a  mere 
Bacchanalian  orgy,  in  which  the  worshippers  in- 
toxicated themselves  in  honour  of  approving  deities. 
Exhilaration  will  sufficiently  explain  all  that  is  said 
of  the  Soma  in  the  Rig-Veda ;  and  it  is  charitable 
to  suppose  that  nothing  more  was  aimed  at  in  the 
Soma  ceremony. 

The  offerings  of  praise  and  sacrifice,  and  especially 
the  offering  of  the  soma  juice,  were  considered  not 
merely  to  please  the  god,  who  was  the  object  of  them, 
but  to  lay  him  under  a  binding  obligation,  and  al- 
most to  compel  him  to  grant  the  requests  of  the 
worshipper.  "The  mortal  who  is  strenuous  in  wor- 
ship," it  is  said,2  "acquires  an  authority  "  over  the 
object  of  his  religious  regards — an  authority  which 
is  so  complete  that  he  may  even  sell  the  god's  favour 
to  another  person,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  attain 
the  object  of  his  desires.  "Who  buys  this — my 
Indra,"  says  Vamadeva,  a  Vedic  poet,3  "  with  ten 
milch  kine?  When  he  shall  have  slain  his  foes, 
then  let  the  purchaser  give  him  back  to  me  again ; '' 

1  Wilson,  "Introduction,"  p.  xxxvii. 

2  Mandala  iv.  Sukta  15,  \  5. 

3  Ibid.  iv.  Sukta  24, £  10. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      125 

which  the  commentator  explains  as  follows : l  "  Vam- 
adeva,  having  by  much  praise  got  Indra  into  his  pos- 
session or  subjugation,  proposes  to  make  a  bargain 
when  about  to  dispose  of  him  ;  "  and  so  he  offers  for 
ten  milch  kine  to  hand  him  over  temporarily,  appa- 
rently to  any  person  who  will  pay  the  price,  with 
the  proviso  that  when  Indra  has  subdued  the  person's 
foes,  he  is  to  be  returned  to  the  vendor ! 

The  subject  of  a  future  life  seems  scarcely  to  have 
presented  itself  with  any  distinctness  to  the  thoughts 
of  the  early  Indians.  There  is  not  the  slightest  ap- 
pearance in  the  Rig- Veda  of  a  belief  in  metempsy- 
chosis, or  the  transmigration  of  human  souls  after 
death  into  the  bodies  of  animals.2  The  phenomena 
of  the  present  world,  what  they  see  and  hear  and 
feel  in  it,  in  the  rushing  of  the  wind,  the  howling  of 
the  storm,  the  flashing  of  the  lightning  from  cloud 
to  cloud,  the  splash  of  the  rain,  the  roar  of  the  swol- 
len rivers,  the  quick  changes  from  day  to  night,  and 
from  night  to  day,  from  storm  to  calm  and  from 
calm  to  storm,  from  lurid  gloom  to  sunshine  and 
from  sunshine  to  lurid  gloom  again;  the  interesting 
business  of  life,  the  kindling  of  fire,  the  lighting  up 
of  the  hearth ;  the  performance  of  sacrifice;  the  work, 
agricultural,  pastoral,  or  other,  to  be  clone  during 
the  day,  the  storing  up  of  food,  the  acquirement  of 
riches,  the  training  of  children;  war,  the  attack  of 
foes,  the  crash  of  arms,  the  flight,  the  pursuit,  the 
burning  of  towns,  the  carrying  off  of  booty — these 

1  Wilson,  Rig- Veda,  vol.  iii.  p.  170,  note  2. 

2  Max  M  tiller,  "Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  i.  p.  45. 


126  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

things,  and  such  things  as  these,  so  occupy  and  fill 
the  minds  of  this  primitive  race,  that  they  have  in 
general  no  room  for  other  speculations,  no  time  or 
thought  to  devote  to  them.  It  is  only  occasionally, 
in  rare  instances,  that  to  this  or  that  poet  the  idea 
seems  to  have  occurred,  "  Is  this  world  the  whole,  or 
is  there  a  hereafter?  Are  there  such  things  as  hap- 
piness and  misery  beyond  the  grave?  Still,  the 
Rig-Veda  is  not  altogether  without  expressions 
which  seem  to  indicate  a  hope  of  immortality  and  of 
future  happiness  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  good,  nor  en- 
tirely devoid  of  phrases  which  may  allude  to  a  place 
of  future  punishment  for  the  wicked.  "He  who 
gives  alms/'  says  one  poet,1  "goes  to  the  highest 
place  in  heaven ;  he  goes  to  the  gods."  "  Thou,  Agni, 
hast  announced  heaven  to  Manu,"  says  another; 
which  is  explained  to  mean,  that  Agni  revealed  to 
Manu  the  fact,  that  heaven  is  to  be  gained  by  pious 
works.2  "Pious  sacrificers,"  proclaims  a  third,3 
"enjoy  a  residence  in  the  heaven  of  Indra;  pious 
sacrificers  dwell  in  the  presence  of  the  gods."  Con- 
versely, it  is  said  that  "  Indra  casts  into  the  pit  those 
who  offer  no  sacrifice," 4  and  that  "  the  wicked,  who 
are  false  in  thought  and  false  in  speech,  are  born  for 
the  deep  abyss  of  hell."5     In  the  following  hymn 

i  Mandala  i.  Sukta  125,  \  5. 

2  Wilson,  "Rig-Veda,"  vol.  i.  p.  80,  note  a. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  42. 

*  Mandala  i.  Sukta  121,  \  13. 

6  Wilson's  "Rig- Veda,"  vol.  iii.  p.  129,  compared  with    Max 
Miiller  ("Chips,"  vol.  i.  p.  47). 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanskritic  Indians.      127 

there  is,  at  any  rate,  clear  evidence  that  the  early 
Vedic  poets  had  aspirations  after  immortality : 

"Where  there  is  eternal  light,  in  the  world  where  the  sun  is  placed, 
In  that  immortal,  imperishable  world,  place  me,  0  Soma. 

Where  King  Vaivaswata  reigns,  where  the  secret  place  of  heaven  is, 
Where  the  mighty  waters  are,  there  make  me  immortal. 

Where  life  is  free,  in  the  third  heaven  of  heavens, 
Where  the  worlds  are  radiant,  there  make  me  immortal. 

Where  wishes  and  desires  are,  where  the  place  of  the  bright  sun  is, 
Where  there  is  freedom  and  delight,  there  make  me  immortal. 

Where  there  is  happiness  and  delight,  where  joy  and  pleasure 
reside, 

Where  the  desires  of  our  heart  are  attained,  there  make  me  im- 
mortal,"1 

As  thus,  occasionally,  the  deeper  problems  of 
human  existence  were  approached,  and,  as  it  were, 
just  touched  by  the  Vedic  bards,  so  there  were  times 
when  some  of  the  more  thoughtful  among  them,  not 
content  with  the  simple  and  childish  polytheism  that 
had  been  the  race's  first  instinct,  attempted  to  pene- 
trate further  into  the  mystery  of  the  Divine  exist- 
ence, to  inquire  into  the  relations  that  subsisted 
among  the  various  gods  generally  worshipped,  and 
even  to  search  out  the  origin  of  all  things.  "  Who 
has  seen/'  says  one,2  "  the  primeval  being  at  the  time 
of  his  being  born,  when  that  which  had  no  essence 
bore  that  which  had  an  essence?     Where  was  the 

i  The  translation  is  Prof.  Max  Midler's  ("Chips,"  vol.  i.p.  46). 
2  Wilson's  "Rig-Veda,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  127,  128.     Compare  Max 
Midler,  "Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Religion,"  p.  46. 


128  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

life,  the  blood,  the  soul  of  the  world  ?  Who  sent  to 
ask  this  from  the  sage  that  knew  it?  Immature  in 
understanding,  uncliscerning  in  mind,"  he  goes  on  to 
say,  "  I  inquire  after  those  things  which  are  hidden 
even  from  the  gods.  .  .  .  Ignorant,  I  inquire 
of  the  sages  who  know,  who  is  the  Only  One  who 
upheld  the  spheres  ere  they  were  created  ?"  After  a 
multitude  of  speculations,  he  concludes — "  They  call 
him  Indra,  Mitra,  Yaruna,  Agni — then  he  is  the 
beautiful-winged  heavenly  Garutmat :  that  which  is 
one,  the  wise  give  it  many  names — they  call  it  Agni, 
Yama,  Matarisvan."1  Another  is  still  bolder,  and 
plunges  headlong  into  the  deepest  vortex  of  meta- 
physics. The  following  is  a  metrical  version  of  his 
poem : 2 

"  A  time  there  was,  when  nothing  that  now  is 
Existed — no,  nor  that  which  now  is  not ; 
There  was  no  sky,  there  was  no  firmament. 
What  was  it  that  then  covered  up  and  hid 
Existence?     In  what  refuge  did  it  lie? 
Was  water  then  the  deep  and  vast  abyss, 
The  chaos  in  which  all  was  swallowed  up? 
There  was  no  Death — and  therefore  nought  immortal. 
There  was  no  difference  between  night  and  day. 
The  one  alone  breathed  breathless  by  itself: 
Nor  has  aught  else  existed  ever  since. 
Darkness  was  spread  around ;  all  things  were  veiled 
In  thickest  gloom,  like  ocean  without  light. 
The  germ  that  in  a  husky  shell  lay  hid, 
Burst  into  life  by  its  own  innate  heat. 

1  Max  Midler,  "Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  i.  p.  29. 

2  I  have  followed  as  closely  as  possible  the  prose  translation  of 
Max  Midler,  given  with  an  intermixed  comment  in  his  "History 
of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,"  pp.  559-563. 


Religion  of  the  Early  Sanshritic  Indians.      129 

Then  first  came  Love  upon  it,  born  of  mind, 
Which  the  wise  men  of  old  have  called  the  bond 
'Twixt  uncreated  and  created  things. 
Came  this  bright  ray  from  heaven,  or  from  below? 
Female  and  male  appeared,  and  Nature  wrought 
Below,  above  wrought  Will.     Who  truly  knows, 
Who  has  proclaimed  it  to  us,  whence  this  world 
Came  into  being?     The  great  gods  themselves 
Were  later  born.     Who  knows  then  whence  it  came? 
The  Overseer,  that  dwells  in  highest  heaven, 
He  surely  knows  it,  whether  He  Himself 
Was,  or  was  not,  the  maker  of  the  whole, 
Or  shall  we  say,  that  even  He  knows  not?" 

This  poem,  and  the  other  prayers  above  quoted, 
are  sufficient  to  show  that  among  the  Vedic  poets 
there  were  at  any  rate  some  who,  by  God's  grace, 
had  raised  themselves  above  the  murky  atmosphere 
in  which  they  were  born,  had  "  sought  the  Lord,  and 
felt  after  Him,"  l  had  struggled  out  of  polytheism 
into  a  conscious  monotheism,  and,  although  they 
could  not  without  revelation  solve  the  problem  of 
existence,  had  gone  far  to  realise  the  maint  points  of 
true  religion ;  the  existence  of  one  eternal  and  per- 
fect Being,  the  dependence  of  man  on  Him,  the  ne- 
cessity of  men  leading  holy  lives"  if  they  would 
please  Him,  and  the  need,  which  even  the  best  man 
has,  of  His  mercy  and  forgiveness. 

1  Acts  xvii.  27. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    RELIGION    OF    THE    PHOENICIANS    AND    CAR- 
THAGINIANS. 

"Le  dieu  des  Pheniciens,  comme  de  tous  les  pantheismes  asia- 
tiques,  etait  a  la  fois  un  et  plusieurs." — Lenormant,  Manuel 
d'llisloire  Ancienne,  vol.  iii.  p.  127. 

TN  discussing  the  religion  of  the  Phoenicians  and 
-*■  Carthaginians,  we  have  to  deal  with  a  problem 
far  more  difficult  than  any  which  has  yet  occupied 
us.  No  "  sacred  book,"  like  the  Rig-A7eda  the 
Zendavesta  or  the  "  Ritual  of  the  Dead,"  here 
spreads  before  us  its  stores  of  knowledge,  requiring 
little  more  than  patient  study  to  yield  up  to  us  the 
secrets  which  it  is  the  object  of,  our  inquiry  to  dis- 
cover. No  extensive  range  of  sculptures  or  paint- 
ings exhibits  to  our  eyes,  as  in  Assyria,  Greece,  and 
Egypt,  the  outward  aspect  of  the  worship,  the  forms 
of  the  gods,  the  modes  of  approaching  them,  the 
general  character  of  the  ceremonial.  Nor  has  even 
any  ancient  author,  excepting  one,  treated  expressly 
of  the  subject  in  question,  or  left  us  anything  that 
can  be  called  in  any  sense  an  account  of  the  religion. 
It  is  true  that  we  do  possess,  in  the  "  Evangelical 
Preparation"  of  Eusebius,  a  number  of  extracts 
130 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  131 

from  a  Greek  writer  of  the  first  or  second  century 
after  Christ  bearing  on  the  matter,  and  regarded  by 
some  moderns 1  as  containing  an  authentic  exposition 
of  the  Phoenician  teaching  on  a  number  of  points, 
which,  if  not  exactly  religion,  are  at  any  rate  con- 
nected with  religion.  But  the  work  of  Philo 
Byblius,  from  which  Eusebius  quotes,  is  so  wild,  so 
confused,  so  unintelligible,  that  it  is  scarcely  possi- 
ble to  gather  from  it,  unless  by  a  purely  arbitrary 
method  of  interpretation,2  any  distinct  views  what- 
soever. Moreover,  the  work  is  confined  entirely  to 
cosmogony  and  mythology,  two  subjects  which  are 
no  doubt  included  in  "  religion,"  as  that  term  was 
understood  in  the  ancient  world,  but  which  lie  so 
much  upon  its  outskirts,  and  so  little  touch  its  inner 
heart,  that  even  an  accurate  and  consistent  exposition 
would  go  a  very  short  way  towards  acquainting  us 
with  the  real  character  of  a  religious  system  of 
which  we  knew  only  these  portions.  Add  to  this, 
that  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  Philo  of  Byblus 
reported  truly  what  he  found  in  the  Phoenician 
originals  which  he  professed  to  translate,  or  did  not 
rather  import  into  them  his  own  philosophical  no- 
tions, and  his  own  theories  of  the  relation  borne  by 
the  Phoenician  theology  to  that  of  other  countries. 

If,  upon  these  grounds,  we  regard  the  fragments 
of  Philo  Byblius  as  untrustworthy,  and  as  only  to 

1  Especially  Baron  Bunsen.     (See  "Egypt's  Place  in  Universal 
History,"  vol.  iii.  pp.  162-287.) 

2  Bunsen  assumes  that  Philo' s  "work  contains  three  cosmogonies, 
quite  distinct,  of  which  the  second  and  third  contradict  the  first. 


132  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

be  used  with  the  utmost  caution,  we  are  reduced  to 
draw  our  knowledge  of  the  Phoenician  and  Car- 
thaginian religion  from  scattered  and  incidental 
notices  of  various  kinds — from  the  allusions  made 
to  the  subject  by  the  writers  of  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament,  from  casual  statements  occurring  in  clas- 
sical authors,  from  inscriptions,  from  the  etymology 
of  names,  and  from  occasional  representations  ac- 
companying inscriptions  upon  stones  or  coins.  Such 
sources  as  these  "  require/'  as  has  been  well  said,1 
the  greatest  care  before  they  can  be  properly  sifted 
and  successfully  fitted  together ; "  and  they  constitute 
at  best  a  scanty  and  unsatisfactory  foundation  for  a 
portraiture  which,  to  have  any  value,  must  be  drawn 
with  some  sharpness  and  definiteness. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian polytheism — especially  striking  when  we  com- 
pare it  with  the  systems  which  lay  geographically 
the  nearest  to  it,  those  of  Egypt  and  Assyria — is  its 
comparative  narrowness.  If  we  make  a  collection 
of  the  divine  names  in  use  either  in  Phoenicia  Proper 
or  in  the  Phoenician  colonies,  we  shall  find  that  alto- 
gether they  do  not  amount  to  twenty.  Baal,  Ash- 
toreth,  Melkarth,  Moloch,  Adonis,  Dagon,  Eshmun, 
Hadad,  El,  Eliun,  Baaltis,  Onca,  Shamas,  Sadyk, 
the  Kabiri,  exhaust  pretty  nearly  the  list  of  the  na- 
tive deities;  and  if  we  add  to  these  the  divinities 
adopted  from  foreign  countries,  Tanith,  Hammon, 
(=Ammon),  and  Osir  (—Osiris),  we  shall  still  find 
the  number  of  distinct  names  not  to  exceed  eighteen. 
1  M$j  Miillcr,  "Science  of  Religion,"  pp.  117-118. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  133 

This  is  a  small  number  compared  even  with  the 
pantheon  of  Assyria ;  compared  with  that  of  Egypt, 
it  is  very  remarkably  scanty. 

It  may  be  added  that  there  are  grounds  for  doubt- 
ing whether  even  the  eighteen  names  above  given 
were  regarded  by  the  Phoenicians  themselves  as  de- 
signating really  so  many  deities.  We  shall  find,  as 
we  proceed,  reason  to  believe,  or  to  suspect,  that  in 
more  than  one  case  it  is  the  very  same  deity  who  is 
designated  by  two  or  more  of  the  sacred  names. 

The  general  character  of  the  names  themselves  is 
remarkable.  A  large  proportion  of  them  are  honor- 
ific titles,  only  applicable  to  real  persons,  and  indica- 
tive of  the  fact  that  from  the  first  the  Phoenician  peo- 
ple, like  most  other  Semitic  races,  distinctly  appre- 
hended the  personality  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and 
intended  to  worship,  not  nature,  but  God  in  nature, 
not  planets,  or  elements,  or  storm,  or  cloud,  or  dawn, 
or  lightning,  but  a  being  or  beings  above  and  beyoud 
all  these,  presiding  over  them,  perhaps,  and  working 
through  them,  but  quite  distinct  from  them,  posses- 
sing a  real  personal  character.  El  signified  "the 
strong,"  or  "  the  powerful,"  1  and  in  the  cognate  He- 
brew took  the  article,  and  became  ha-El,  "the  Strong 
One,"  He  who  alone  has  true  strength  and  power 
and  who  therefore  alone  deserves  to  be  called  "strong" 
or  "mighty."  Eliun  is  "the  Exalted,"  "the  Most 
High,"  and  is  so  translated  in  our  authorised  version 
of  Genesis  (xiv.  18),  where  Melchizedek,  King  of 
Salem,  the  well-known  type  of  our  blessed  Lord,2  is 

1  Max  Miiller,  "Science  of  Religion,"  p.  177. 

2  See  Psa.  ex.  4     Heb.  vii.  1-24. 


134  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

said  to  have  been  "  the  priest  of  the  most  High  God," 
which  is  in  the  original,  "  priest  of  El-Eliun."  Again, 
Sadyk  is  "  the  Just,"  "the  Righteous,"  and  is  identi- 
cal with  the  Zedek  occurring  as  the  second  element  in 
Melchizedek,  which  St.  Paul,  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (vii.  2),  translates  by  "King  of  righteous- 
ness." Baal  is  "  Lord,"  or  "  Master,"  an  equivalent 
of  the  Latin  dominus,  and  hence  a  term  which  natur- 
ally requires  another  after  it,  since  a  lord  must  be 
lord  of  something.  Hence  in  Phoenician  inscriptions1 
we  find  Baal-Tsur,  "Lord  of  Tyre,"  Baal-Tsidon, 
"  Lord  of  Zidon,"  Baal-Tars,  "  Lord  of  Tarsus,"  and 
the  like.  Hence  also  we  meet  with  such  words2  as 
Baal-bcrith,  "  Lord  of  treaties,"  Baal-peor,  "  Lord  of 
Peor"  (a  mountain),  Baal-zebub,  "Lord  of  flies,"  and 
Beel-samin,3  "  Lord  of  Heaven."  Adonis,  or  more 
properly  Adoni,  for  the  S  is  merely  the  Greek  nomi- 
natival ending,  has  nearly  the  same  meaning  as  Baal, 
being  the  Phoenician  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew 
Adonai,  the  word  ordinarily  rendered  "  Lord"  in  our 
version  of  the  Old  Testament,  Adoni,  however, 
takes  no  adjunct,  since  it  is  most  properly  translated 
"  my  lord,"  "  lord  of  me," 4  and  thus  contains  in  itself 
the  object  of  the  lordship.  Moloch  is  melek,  "  king," 
the  initial  element  in  Melchizedek;  and  it  is  this 
same  word  which  appears  a  second  time,  with  an  ad- 

1  Gesenius,    "Scriptimc  Linguxque   riiocnicioe   Monumenta," 
pp.  96,  277,  etc. 

2  Num.  xxv.  3,  5;  Judg.  viii.  33;  ix.  4;  2  Kings  i.  3,  6. 

3  Philo  Byblius  in  the  "  Fragmenta  Historicorum  Graecorum," 
vol.  iii.  p.  565. 

4  Gesenius.  p.  400. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  135 

jimct,  in  Melkarth,  which  is  a  contraction  of  mdek- 
kereth,  or  rather  melek-qereth,1  which  means  "  king  of 
!  the  city."  Baaltis,  or  Baalti,  is  the  feminine  form  of 
Baal,  with  the  suffix  found  also  in  Acloni,  and  has 
the  meaning  of  "  my  lady."  The  Greeks  expressed 
the  word  most  commonly  by  Beltis,  but  occasionally 
by  Belthes,2  and,  through  a  confusion  of  the  kindred 
labials  m  and  6,  by  Mylitta.3  The  Kabiri  are  "  the 
Great  Ones,"  from  kabbir,  "great,"  which  makes 
kabbirim  in  the  plural. 

It  may  be  suspected,  though  it  cannot  be  proved, 
that  these  various  names,  excepting  the  last,  were 
originally  mere  epithets  of  the  One  Eternal  and  Di- 
vine Being  Avho  was  felt  to  rule  the  world,  and  that, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  case  elsewhere,  the 
Phoenicians  at  any  rate  began  with  the  monotheistic 
idea,  whether  that  idea  originated  in  the  recesses  of 
their  own  hearts  or  was  impressed  upon  them  from 
without  by  revelation.  If  El,  Eliun,  Sadyk,  Baal, 
Adoni,  Moloch,  Melkarth,  were  all  one,  may  not  the 
same  have  been  true  of  Dagon,  Hadacl,  Eshmun, 
Sham  as,  etc.  ?  nay,  may  not  even  the  foreign  gods, 
Hammon  and  Osir,  have  been  understood  to  be  sim- 
ply additional  epithets  of  the  Most  High,  expressive 
of  his  attributes  of  inscrutability  and  omniscience  ? 

A  primary  objection  may  seem  to  lie  against  this 
view  in  the  fact  that  the  Phoenicians  recognised  not  only 
gods,  but  goddesses,  the  name  Ashtoreth 4  belonging 

1  Gesenius  p.  96.  2Hesych.  ad  voc.  fr'/Wyc.  3  Herod,  i.  131, 199. 

4  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  appear  first  distinctly  as  Phoenician  gods 

in  1  Kings  xi.  5 ;  but  we  may  suspect  that  they  bear  the  same 


136  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

to  the  religion  from   the  very  earliest  time  to  which 
we  can   trace  it  back,  and  Baaltis  being  placed  by 
the  side  of  Baal,  apparently  as  a  distinct  and  separate 
personage.     But  it  has  been  argued  that  "  the  origi- 
nal conception  of  female  deities  differs  among  Semi- 
tic and  Aryan  nations,"  and  that  the  feminine  forms 
among  the  Semites  "  were  at  first  intended  only  to 
express  the  energy  or  the  collective  powers  of  the 
deity,  not   a   separate  being,  least   of  all   a   wife." l 
And  this  view  is  confirmed  by  passages  in  ancient 
inscriptions  which  seem  to   identify  Phoenician  gods 
and  goddesses,  as   one   in  the   inscription  of  Mesa, 
which  speaks  of  Chemosh-Ashtar  as  a   single  deity, 
another   in  an  inscription  from  Carthage  in  which 
Tanith  is  called  Pen-Baal,  or  "  the  face  of  Baal," 2 
'  and  a  third,    on  the  tomb  of  Eshmunazar,  Kino-  of 
Sidon,  where  Ashtoreth  herself  is  termed  Shcm-Baal, 
"the   name   of  Baal."3     If  Ashtoreth  and  Tanith 
were  merely  aspects  of  Baal,  if  the  Phoenician  Su- 
preme God  was  "  androgynous," 4  the  fact  that  the 
religious  system  of  the  people  admitted  goddesses  as 
well   as  gods,  will  not  militate  against  its   original 
monotheism. 

A  more  vital  objection  may  be  taken  from  the  two 
names,  Eshmun  and  Kabiri.     The  Kabiri  were  the 

character  where  they  are  mentioned  in  Judges  ii.  13;  x.  6.  They 
appear  as  Syrian  gods  in  the  hieroglyphical  inscriptions  as  early 
as  Rameses  II.  (about  u.  c.  1350). 

1  Max  Midler,  "Science  of  Religion,"  p,  183. 

2  De  Vogue,  in  the  "Journal  Asiatique"  for  1867,  p.  138. 
8  Max  Midler,  "Science  of  Religion,"  p,  184. 

4  "Speaker's  Commentary,"  vol.  i.  p.  732. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  137 

sons  of  Sadyk ;  they  were  seven  in  number ; 1  they 
were  actual  deities,  the  special  gods  of  sailors; 
images  of  them  adorned  the  prows  of  vessels.  And 
Eshmun,  the  name  of  their  brother,  is  a  word  siffni- 
fying  "eight/'  or  the  "eighth."  It  seems  clear 
from  this  that  the  Phoenicians  ultimately  recognised 
at  least  eight  gods;  and  if  so,  we  must  pronounce 
them  polytheists. 

At  any  rate,  whether  or  no  they  were  polytheists 
from  the  first,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  became 
such.  When  the  Carthaginian  introduced  by  Plautus 
into  his  "Pcenulus"  commences  his  speech2  with 
the  words  "  Yth  alonim  v'alonuth  siccarthi,"  which 
Plautus  rightly  renders  by  "  Deos  deasque  veneror," 
or,  "  I  worship  the  gods  and  goddesses,"  he  expresses 
a  genuine  Phoenician  sentiment.  Baal  and  Ash- 
toreth,  if  originally  one,  were  soon  divided,  were 
represented  under  different  forms,  and  were  worship- 
ped separately.  El,  Eliun,  Sadyk,  Adonis,  Melkarth, 
drifted  off  from  their  original  moorings,  and  became 
distinct  and  separate  gods,  sometimes  with  a  local 
character.3  Dagou,  Eshmun,  Shamas,  had  perhaps 
been  distinct  from  their  first  introduction,  as  had 
been  the  Kabiri,  and  perhaps  some  others.  Thus  a 
small  pantheon  was  formed,  amounting,  even  in- 
cluding the  Kabiri,  to  no  more  than  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  divinities. 

1  "Philo  Byblius,"  c.  5,  \  8;  Damascius  ap.  Phot.  "  Bibliothec." 
p.  573. 

2  Plaut.  "Poenul."  Act  v.  \  1. 

3  Moloch  became  the  special  god  of  the  Ammonites ;  Hadad,  of 
the  Syrians. 


138  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World, 

At  the  head  of  all  clearly  stood  Baal  and  Ash- 
toreth,  the  great  male  and  the  great  female  prin- 
ciples. Baal,  "  the  Lord "  par  excellence,  was  per- 
haps sometimes  and  in  some  places  taken  to  be  the 
sun ; x  but  this  was  certainly  not  the  predominant 
idea  of  any  period ;  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
in  the  original  seats  of  the  nation  it  was  ever  enter- 
tained  until  after  the  Roman  conquest.  As  Bel  in 
Babylonia  was  completely  distinct  from  Shamas,2  so 
was  Baal  in  Phoenicia.3  The  Greeks  rendered  Bel 
and  Baal,  not  by  Apollo,  but  by  Zeus ; 4  and  their 
rendering  was  approved  by  Philo  Byblius,5  who,  if 
a  Greek  by  extraction,  was  well-versed  in  Phoenician 
lore,  and  a  native  of  Byblus,  a  Phoenician  town. 
Baal  seems  really  to  have  been  the  Supreme  God. 
His  chief  titles  were  Baal-shamayin,  "the  Lord  of 
heaven/'  Baal-berith,  "the  Lord  of  treaties,"  cor- 
responding to  the  Grecian  "  Zeus  Orkios,"  aud  Bel- 
ithan,6  "  the  aged  Lord,"  with  which  we  may  com- 
pare the  Biblical  phrase,  "  the  Ancient  of  days." 7 
He  was  also  known  in  Numidia  as  "  the  eternal 
king." 8  Baal  was  the  god  to  whom  we  may  almost 
say  that  most  Phoenicians  were  consecrated  soon  after 
their  birth,  the  names  given  to  them  being  in  almost 

1  See  Gesenius,  "Scrip.  Phoenic.  Mon.,"  pi.  21. 

2  See  above,  p.  52-57. 

3  The  separate  worship  of  Shamas,  or  the  Sun,  appears  in  2 
Kings  xxiii.  5,  and  in  Gesenius,  p.  119. 

4  Herod,  i.  181 ;  Diod.  Sic.  ii.  9. 

5  Philo.  Bybl,  c.  iv.  \  14. 

6  Damasc.  ap.  Phot.  "  Bibliothec."  cod.  ccxlii.  p.  559. 

*  Dan.  vii.  9,  13.  8  Gesenius,  pp.  197,  202,  205. 


Tlie  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians. 


139 


a  majority  of  cases  compounded  with  Baal  or  Bal.1 
Dedicatory  inscriptions  are  in  general  addressed  to 
him,  either  singly,2  or  in  conjunction  with  a  goddess, 
who  is  most  usually  Tanith.3  Not  unfrequently  he 
is  addressed  as  Baal-Ham- 
mon,  or  Baal  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Egyptian  god 
Amnion,4  with  whom  he  is 
thus  identified,  not  unna- 
turally, since  Amnion  too 
was  recognised  as  the  Su- 
preme God,  and  addressed 
as  Zeus  or  Jupiter.5 

Ashtoreth,  or  Astarte,  is 
a  word  whereof  no  satis- 
factory account  has  as  yet 
been  given.  It  seems  to 
have  no  Semitic  deriva- 
tion, and  may  perhaps  have 
been  adopted  by  the  Sem- 
ites from  an  earlier  Hamitic 
population.  Originally  a  mere  name  for  the  energy 
or  activity  of  God,  Ashtoreth  came  to  be  regarded 
by  the  Phoenicians  as  a  real  female  personage,  a 
supreme  goddess,  on  a  par  with  Baal,6  though  scarcely 

1  Eth-baal  (1  Kings  xvi.  81),  Merbal  (Herod,  vii.  98),  Hannibal, 
Hasdrubal,  Adherbal,  Maharbal,  are  well-known  instances. 

2  Gesenius,  "Script.  Phoen.  Mon.,"  Nos.  3,  4,  49,  51,  etc. 

3  Ibid.  Nos.  46,  47,  48,  and  50. 

4  Ibid.  p.  172. 

5  Herod,  ii.  42;  Diod.  Sic.  i.  13;  Plut.  "De  Isid.  et  Osir,"  s.  9. 

6  See  the  inscription  in  Gesenius'  collection,  numbered  81  (pi. 


ASTARTE. 


140  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

worshipped  so  generally.  In  the  native  mythology- 
she  was  the  daughter  of  Uranos  (heaven),  and  the 
wife  of  El,  or  Saturn.1  The  especial  place  of  her 
worship  in  Phoenicia  was  Sidon.2  In  one  of  her  as- 
pects she  represented  the  moon,  and  bore  the  head 
of  a  heifer  with  horns  curving  in  a  crescent  form,3 
whence  she  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  called 
Ashtoreth  Karnaim,4  or,  "Astarte  of  the  two  horns." 
But,  more  commonly,  she  was  a  nature  goddess, 
"  the  great  mother,"  the  representation  of  the  female 
principle  in  nature,  and  hence  presiding  over  the 
sexual  relation,  and  connected  more  or  less  with  love 
and  with  voluptuousness.  The  Greeks  regarded 
their  Aphrodite,  and  the  Romans  their  Venus,  as 
her  equivalent.  One  of  her  titles  was  "  Queen  of 
Heaven ; "  and  under  this  title  she  was  often  wor- 
shipped by  the  Israelites.5 

Melkarth  has  been  regarded  by  some  writers  as 
"only  another  form  of  Baal."  6  But  he  seems  to 
have  as  good  a  claim  to  a  distinct  personality  as  any 
Phoenician  deity  after  Ashtoreth  and  Baal.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans,  who  make  Baal  equivalent  to 
their  Zeus  or  Jupiter,  always  identify  Melkarth  with 
Hercules  ;7  and  in  a  bilingual  inscription,8  set  up  by 

47),  where  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  are  joined  together.  Compare 
Judg.  ii.  13;  x.  G. 

1  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  12. 

2  See  1  Kings  xi.  5,  33,  and  compare  the  inscription  of  Esh- 
munazar. 

3  Philo  Byblius,  c.  v.  \  1.         4  Gen.  xiv.  5. 

5  Jer.  vii.  18;   xliv.  25.  6  Kenrick,  "Phoenicia,"  p.  322. 

»  Herod,  ii.  44;   Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  19,  etc. 
8  This  inscription  is  given  by  Gesenius  (pi.  6). 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  141 

two  natives  of  Tyre,  this  identification  is  endorsed 
and  accepted.  When  Melkarth  is  qualified  as  baal- 
Tsur,  "  baal  of  Tyre,"  it  is  not  meant  that  he  was  the 
Tyrian  form  of  the  god  Baal,  but  that  he  was  the" 
special  tutelary  "lord"  of  the  great  Phoenician  city. 
The  word  Melkarth,  as  already  explained,  means 
"  king  of  the  city,"  and  the  city  intended  was  origi- 
nally Tyre,  though  Melkarth  would  seem  to  have  been 
in  course  of  time  regarded  as  a  god  of  cities  generally ; 
and  thus  he  was  worshipped  at  Carthage,  at  Heraclea 
in  Sicily,  at  Amathus  in  Cyprus,  at  Gades  in  Spain, 
and  elsewhere.1  In  Numidia2  he  had  the  title  of 
"great  lord;"  but  otherwise  there  is  little  in  the 
Phoenician  monuments  to  define  his  attributes  or  fix 
his  character.  We  must  suppose  that  the  Greeks 
traced  in  them  certain  resemblances  to  their  own  con- 
ception of  Hercules ;  but  it  may  be  doubtful  whither 
the  resemblances  were  not  rather  fanciful  than  real. 

That  Dagon  was  a  Phoenician  god  appears  from 
many  passages  in  the  fragments  of  Philo  Byblius,3 
though  the  Israelites  would  seem  to  have  regarded 
him  as  a  special  Philistine  deity.4  There  are  indica- 
tions,5 however,  of  his  worship  having  been  spread 

i  See  the  inscriptions  in  Gesenius  (pis.  14,  16,  17) :  and  the 
coins  of  Heraclea  (pi.  38),  of  Gades  (pi.  40),  and  of  Sextus 
(ibid.)  in  the  same.  On  Amathus,  see  Hesychius  and  voc. 
Malicha. 

2  Gesenius,  pi.  27,  No.  65. 

3  Especially  c.  iv.  \\  2,  6,  15. 

4  Judg.  xvi.  23  ;   1  Sam.  v.  2-5  ;  1  Chron.  x.  10. 

5  Berosus  speaks  of  an  early  Babylonian  god  as  hearing  the 
name   of    O-dacon,    which   is,    perhaps,    Dagon   with   a    prefix- 


142  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

widely  through  Western  Asia  in  very  early  times  j 
and  its  primitive  source  is  scarcely  within  the  range 
of  conjecture.  According  to  the  general  idea,  the 
Phoenician  Dagon  was  a  Fish -god,1  having  the  form 
described  by  Berosus,  and  represented  so  often  in  the 
Assyrian  sculptures — "  a  form  resembling  that  of  a 
fish,  but  with  a  human  head  growing  below  the  fish's, 
and  with  human  feet  growing  alongside  of  the  fish's 
tail  and  coming  out  from  it."  2  Fish  are  common 
emblems  upon  the  Phoenician  coins ; 3  and  the  word 
Dagon  is  possibly  derived  from  dag,  "  a  fish,"  so  that 
the  temptation  to  identify  the  deity  with  the  striking 
form  revealed  to  us  by  the  Ninevite  sculptures  is  no 
doubt  considerable.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  Scriptural  de- 
scription of  the  Philistine  Dagon  to  suggest  the  idea 
that  the  image  which  fell  on  its  face  before  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  had  in  any  respect  the  form  of  a  fish.4 
Nor  do  the  Assyrian  monuments  connect  the  name  of 

Dagon  is  an  element  in  the  name  of  a  primitive  Chaldaean 
monarch,  which  is  read  as  Ismi-Dagon.  Asshur-izir-pal  couples 
Dagon  with  Anu  in  his  inscriptions,  and  represents  himself  as 
equally  the  votary  of  both.  Da-gan  is  also  found  in  the  Assyrian 
remains  as  an  epithet  of  Belus.  (See  the  Author's  "Ancient 
Monarchies,"  vol.  i.  p.  614;  2nd  edition.). 

1  See  Kenrick,  " Phoenicia,"  p.  323;  Layard,  "Nineveh  and 
Babylon,"  p.  343;  "Speaker's  Commentary,"  vol.  ii.  p.  201,  etc. 

2  Beros.  Fr.  i.  \  3. 

3  Gesenius,  "Script.  Phcen.  Monumenta,"  pis.  40  and  41. 

*  There  is  nothing  in  the  original  corresponding  to  "the  fishy 
part,"  which  is  given  in  the  margin  of  the  Authorised  Version. 
The  actual  words  are,  "only  Dagon  was  left  to  him."  The 
ss-oaning  is  obscure. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  143 

Dagon,  which  they  certainly  contain/  with  the  Fish- 
deity  whose  image  they  present.  That  deity  is  Nin 
or  Ninus.2  Altogether,  therefore,  it  must  be  pro- 
nounced exceedingly  doubtful  whether  the  popular 
idea  has  any  truth  at  all  in  it;  or  whether  we- ought 
not  to  revert  to  the  view  put  forward  by  Philo,3  that 
the  Phoenician  Dagon  was  a  "corn-god/'  and  presided 
over  agriculture. 

Adonis,  or  Tammuz,  which  was  probably  his  true 
name,4  was  a  god  especially  worshipped  at  Byblus. 
He  seems  to  have  represented  nature  in  its  alternate 
decline  and  revival,  whence  the  myth  spoke  of  his 
death  and  restoration  to  life;  the  river  of  Byblus 
was  regarded  as  annually  reddened  with  his  blood ; 
and  once  a  year,  at  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice, 
the  women  of  Phoenicia  and  Syria  generally  "  wept  for 
Tammuz."5  Extravagant  sorrow  was  followed  after 
an  interval  by  wild  rejoicings  in  honour  of  his  re- 
storation to  life ;  and  the  excitement  attendant  on 
these  alternations  of  joy  and  woe  led  on  by  almost 
necessary  consequence,  with  a  people  of  such  a  tem- 
perament as  the  Syrians,  to  unbridled  licence  and 
excess.     The   rites  of  Aphaca,  where   Adonis   had 

1  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  the  Author's  "Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  p.  614; 
3rd  edition, 

2  Ibid.  p.  642. 

3  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  2 :— Adyov,  ogsGri  ^iruv.  Compare  \  13, 
where  Dagon  is  said  to  have  discovered  corn  and  invented  the 
plough,  whence  he  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  equivalent  to 
their  Zeus  Arotrios. 

4  Gesenius,  "Script.  Phcen.  Mon."     p.  400. 
6  Ezek.  viii.  14. 


144  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

his  chief  temple,  were  openly  immoral,  and  when  they 
were  finally  put  down,  exhibited  every  species  of 
abomination  characteristic  of  the  worst  forms  of 
heathenism.1 

El,  whom  Philo  Byblius  identifies  with  Kronos,2 
or  Saturn,  is  a  shadowy  god  compared  with  those 
hitherto  described.  In  the  mythology  he  was  the 
child  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  brother  of  Dagon,  and 
the  father  of  a  son  whom  he  sacrificed.3  His  actual 
worship  by  the  Phoenicians  is  not  very  well  attested, 
but  may  be  regarded  as  indicated  by  such  names  as 
Hanni-el,  Kadml  (=Kadmi-el),  Enyl  (=Eni-el) 
and  the  like.4  He  is  said  to  have  been  identified  with 
the  planet  Saturn  by  the  Phoenicians  ; 5  and  this  may 
be  true  of  the  later  form  of  the  religion,  though  El 
originally  can  scarcely  have  been  anything  but  a 
name  of  the  Supreme  God.  It  corresponded  beyond 
a  doubt  to  II,  in  the  system  of  the  Babylonians,  who 
was  the  head  of  the  pantheon, 6  and  the  special  god 
of  Babel,  or  Babylon,  which  is  expressed  by  Bab-il, 
"the  gate  of  II,"  in  the  inscriptions.7 

lEuseb.  "Vit.  Constantin.  Magn."  iii.  55.  Compare  Ken- 
rick,  "Phoenicia,"  vol.  i.  p.  811. 

2  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  2  :—Ulov  ruv  ml  Kpovov.  Compare  \  10 
and  §  21. 

3  Philo  Bybl.  c.  vi.  \  3. 

4  Hanni-el-occurs  in  a  Phoenician  inscription  (Gesen.  p.  133). 
Cadmil  is  given  as  one  of  the  Kabiri  by  the  Scholiast  on  Apollo- 
nius  Rhodius  (i.  917).  Enyl  is  mentioned  as  a  king  of  Byblus 
by  Arrian  ("Exp.  Alex."  ii.  20). 

&  Philo  Bybl.  1.  s.  c. 

6  See  above,  p.  47. 

7  Sir  II.  Pvawlinson  in  the  Author's  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  p.  613. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians. 


145 


That  Shamas,  or  Shemesh,  "  the  sun,"  was  wor- 
shipped separately  from  Baal  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. In  Assyria  and  Babylonia  he  was  one  of  the 
foremost  deities;1  and  his  cult  among  the  Phoeni- 
cians is  witnessed  by  such  a  name  as  Abed-Shemesh, 
which  is  found  in  two  of  the  native  inscriptions.2 
Abed-Shemesh  means  "  ser- 
vant of  Shemesh,"  as  Oba- 
diah  means  "servant  of 
Jehovah,"  and  Abdallah 
"  servant  of  Allah  " ;  and  is 
an  unmistakable  evidence 
of  the  worship  of  Shemesh 
by  the  people  who  employed 
it  as  the  parallel  names  are 
of  the  worship,  respective- 
ly, of  Jehovah  and  Allah, 

by  Jews  and  Mohammedans.  The  sun-worship  of 
the  Phoenicians  seems  to  have  been  accompanied  by 
a  use  of  "  sun-images, " 3  of  which  we  have  perhaps 
a  specimen  in  the  accompanying  figure,  which  oc- 
curs on  a  votive  tablet  found  in  Numidia,4  although 
the  tablet  itself  is  dedicated  to  Baal.  There  was  also 
connected  with  it  a  dedication  to  the  sun-god  of 
chariots  and  horses,  to  which  a  quasi-divine  charac- 

i  The  Author's  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  i.  pp.  631-634. 

2  Gesenius,  Script.  Phoen.  Mon."  pi.  9. 

»  This  is  given  in  the  margin  of  2  Chron.  xiv.  5  and  xxxiv.  4, 
as  the  proper  translation  of  khammanim,  which  seem  certainly  to 
have  been  images  of  some  kind  or  other. 

4  Gesenius,  "  Script.  Phoen.  Mon."  pi.  21. 
10 


THE  SUN. 


146  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

ter  attached,1  so  that  certain  persons  were  from  their 
birth  consecrated  to  the  sacred  horses,  and  given  by 
their  parents  the  name  of  Abed-Susim,  "  servant  of 
the  horses,"  as  we  find  by  an  inscription  from  Cy- 
prus.2 It  may  be  suspected  that  the  Hadad  or  Hadar 
of  the  Syrians3  was  a  variant  name  of  Shamas,  per- 
haps connected  with  adir,  "  glorious,"  and  if  so,  with 
the  Sepharvite  god,  Adrammelech.4  Adodus,  ac- 
cording to  Philo  Byblius,  was  in  a  certain  sense 
"  king  (melck)  of  the  gods." 

These  latter  considerations  make  it  doubtful 
whether  the  Moloch  or  Molech,  who  was  the  chief 
divinity  of  the  Ammonites,5  and  of  whose  worship 
by  the  Phoenicians  there  are  certain  indications,6  is 
to  be  viewed  as  a  separate  and  substantive  god,  or  as 
a  form  of  some  other,  as  of  Shamas,  or  of  Baal,  or  of 
Melkarth,  or  even  of  El.  Molech  meaning  simply 
"  king "  is  a  term  that  can  naturally  be  applied  to 
any  "  great  god,"  and  which  may  equally  well  desig- 
nate each  of  the  four  deities  just  mentioned.  Rites 
like  those  of  Molech  belonged  certainly  to  El  and  to 
Baal;7   and   the  name  may  be  an  abbreviation  of 

1  See  2  Kings  xxiii.  11. 

2  Gesenius,  p.  130,  and  pi.  11,  No.  9. 

3  Found  under  the  form  of  Adodus  in  Philo  Byblius  (c.  v.  §  1). 

4  2  Kings  xvii.  31. 

5  See  1  Kings  xi.  7. 

6  The  names  Bar-melek,  Abed-melek,  and  Melek-itten,  which 
occur  in  Phoenician  inscriptions  (Gesenius,  pp.  105,  130,  135), 
imply  a  god  who  has  either  the  proper  name  of  Moloch,  or  is 
worshipped  as  "  the  king.'' 

7  Diod.  Sic.  xx.  14;  Porphyr.  "De  Abstinentia,''  ii.  5G;  Gesen. 
"Script.  Phoen.  Mon."  p.  153. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  147 

Melkarth,1  or  a  title — the  proper  title — of  Shamas. 
The  fact  that  Philo  has  a  Melich,  whom  he  makes  a 
distinct  deity,2  is  of  no  great  importance,  since  it  is 
clear  that  he  multiplies  the  Phoenician  gods  unneces- 
sarily ;  and  moreover,  by  explaining  Melich  as  equiv- 
alent to  Zeus  Meilichios,  he  tends  to  identify  him 
with  Baal.3  Upon  the  whole,  Moloch  seems  scarcely 
entitled  to  be  viewed  as  a  distinct  Phoenician  deity. 
The  word  was  perhaps  not  a  proper  name  in  Phoe- 
nicia, but  retained  its  appellative  force,  and  may 
have  applied  to  more  than  one  deity. 

A  similarly  indefinite  character  attaches  to  the 
Phoenician  Baaltis.  Beltis  was  in  Babylonian  my- 
thology a  real  substantive  goddess,  quite  distinct  and 
separate  from  Ishtar,  Gula,  and  Zirbanit;4  but 
Baaltis  in  Phoenicia  had  no  such  marked  character. 
We  hear  of  no  temples  of  Baaltis ;  of  no  city  where 
she  was  specially  worshipped.5  The  word  does  not 
even  occur  as  an  element  in  Phoenician  proper  names, 
and  if  in  use  at  all  as  a  sacred  name  among  the 
Phoenicians,  must  almost  certainly  have  been  a  mere 
epithet  of  Ashtoreth,6  who  was  in  reality  the  sole 
native  goddess.     Lydus  expressly  states7  that  Blatta, 

1  Melkarth  is  frequently  abbreviated  iu  the  Phoenician  inscrip- 
tions, and  becomes  Melkar,  Mokarth,  and  even  Mokar.  Hesyckius 
says  that  at  Amathus  Hercules  was  called  Malika. 

2  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iii.  §  9. 

3  Since  he  calls  Baal  Zeus  Belus  (c.  iv.  \  17). 
*  See  above,  p.  61. 

5  Philo  makes  her  a  "queen  of  Byblus"  (c.  v.  \  5),  but  says 
nothing  of  her  worship  there. 

6  See  Kenrick's  "Phoenicia,"  p.  301. 
'  "  De  Mensibus,"  i,  19. 


148  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

which  is  (like  Mylitta)  a  corruption  of  Baalti,  was 
"  a  name  given  to  Venus  by  the  Phoenicians." 

Sadyk  again,  whom  we  have  mentioned  as  a  dis- 
tinct deity  on  the  strength  of  statements  in  Philo 
Byblius  and  Damascius,1  scarcely  appears  as  a  sepa- 
rate object  of  worship,  either  in  Phoenicia  or  else- 
where. The  nearest  approach  to  such  an  appearance 
is  furnished  by  the  names  Melchi-zedek,  and  Adoni- 
zedek,2  which  may  admit  of  the  renderings,  "Sadyk 
is  my  king,"  "  Sadyk  is  my  lord."  Sadyk  has  not 
been  found  as  an  element  in  any  purely  Phoenician 
name ;  much  less  is  there  any  distinct  recognition  of 
him  as  a  god  upon  any  Phoenician  monument.  We 
are  told  that  he  was  the  father  of  Eshmun  and  the 
Kabiri ; 3  and  as  they  were  certainly  Phoenician  gods 
we  must  perhaps  accept  Sadyk  as  also  included 
among  their  deities.  From  his  name  we  may  conclude 
that  he  was  a  personification  of  the  Divine  Justice. 

Eshmun  is,  next  to  Baal,  Ashtoreth,  and  Mel- 
karth,  the  most  clearly  marked  and  distinct  presen- 
tation of  a  separate  deity  that  the  Phoenician  remains 
set  before  us.  He  was  the  especial  god  of  Berytus 
(Beirut)?  and  had  characteristics  which  attached  to 
no  other  deity.  Why  the  Greeks  should  have  iden- 
tified him  with  their  Asclepias  or  iEsculapius,5  is 

i  Philo  Byblius,  c.  iii.  \  13 ;  c.  iv.  \  16 ;  etc.  Daniasc.  ap. 
Phot.  "Bibliothec  "  p.  573. 

2  See  Gen.  xiv.  18,  and  Josh.  x.  1. 

s  Philo  Byblius,  c.  iii.  g  14  ;  c.  iv.  §  16. 

4  See  Damascius  ap.  Phot.  "  Bibliothec."  p.  573. 

&  This  is  done  by  Philo  of  Byblus  (c.  v.  \  8),  by  Damascius 
(1.  s.  c),  by  Strabo  (xvii.  14),  and  others. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  149 

not  clear.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Sadyk,  and 
was  a  youth  of  great  beauty,  with  whom  Ashtoreth 
fell  in  love,  as  she  hunted  in  the  Phoenician  forests. 
The  fable  relates  how,  being  frustrated  in  her  de- 
signs, she  afterwards  changed  him  into  a  god,  and 
transported  him  from  earth  to  heaven.1  Thenceforth 
he  was  worshipped  by  the  Phoenicians  almost  as 
much  as  Baal  and  Ashtoreth  themselves.  His  name 
became  a  frequent  element  in  the  Phoenician  proper 
names ; 2  and  his  cult  was  taken  to  Cyprus,  to  Car- 
thage, and  to  other  distant  colonies. 

©7  . 

With  Eshmun  must  be  placed  the  Kabiri,  who  in 
the  mythology  were  his  brothers,3  though  not  born 
of  the  same  mother.4  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
Kabiri  are  to  be  regarded  as  originally  Phoenician, 
or  as  adopted  into  the  religion  of  the  nation  from 
without.  The  ivord  appears  to  be  Semitic ; 5  but  the 
ideas  which  attach  to  it  seem  to  belong  to  a  wide- 
spread superstition,6  whereby  the  discovery  of  fire 
and  the  original  working  in  metals  were  ascribed  to 

1  Damascius,  1.  s.  c. 

2  Eshmun-azar,  -whose  tomb  has  been  found  at  Sidon,  is  the 
best  known  instance ;  but  the  Phoenician  inscriptions  give  also 
Bar-Eshmun,  Han-Eshmun,  Netsib-Eshmun,  Abed-Eshmun,  Esh- 
mun-itten,  and  others.  (See  Gesenius,  "  Script.  Phoen.  Mon." 
p.  136.) 

3  Damascius,  1.  s.  c.  ;  Philo  Byblius,  c.  v.  \  8. 
*  Philo  Bybl.c  iv.  \  16. 

5  See  above,  p.  150.  Mr.  Kenrick  questions  the  derivation 
from  Tcabbir  ("Egypt  of  Herodotus,"  p.  287);  but  almost  all 
other  writers  allow  it. 

e  See  Mr.  Kenrick' s  "  Notes  on  the  Cabiri,"  in  the  work  above 
mentioned,  pp.  2G4-287. 


150  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 


COIN  OF  COSSTJRA. 


strong,  misshapen,  and  generally  dwarfish  deities, 
like  Phthah  in  Egypt,  Hephaistos  and  the  Cyclopes 
in  Greece,  "Gav  the  blacksmith"  in  Persia,  and  the 
gnomes  in  the  Scandinavian  and  Teutonic  mytholo- 
gies. According  to 
Philo  Byblius 1  and 
Damascius,2  the 
Phoenician  Kabiri 
were  seven  in  num- 
ber, and  according 
to  the  Scholiast  on 
Apollonius  Pho- 
dius,3  the  names  of  four  of  them  were  Axierus,  Axi- 
okersus,  Axiokersa,  and  Cadmilus  or  Casmilus. 
Figures  supposed  to  represent  them,  or  some  of 
them,  are  found  upon  Phoenician  coins,  as  especially 
on  those  of  Cossura,4  which  are  exceedingly  curious. 
The  Kabiri  were  said  to  have  invented  ships;5  and 
it  is  reasonable  to  regard  them  as  represented  by  the 
Pataeci  of  Herodotus,6  which  were  pigmy  figures 
placed  by  the  Phoenicians  on  the  prows  of  their  war- 
galleys,  no  doubt  as  tutelary  divinities.  The  Greeks 
compared  the  Kabiri  with  their  own  Castor  and 
Pollux,  who  like  them  presided  over  navigation.7 
Besides  their   original   and    native    deities,    the 

i  Philo  Byblius,  c.  v.  g  8. 

2  Damascius,  1.  s.  c. 

3Schol.  ad  Apoll.  Rhod.  "  Argonautica,"  i.  915. 

4  See  Gesenius,  ''Script.  Plioen.  Mon."  pi.  39. 

5  Philo  Byblius,  c.  iii.  \  14. 
e  Herod,  iii.  37. 

Ulorat,  «Od."  i.  3,  2;  iii.  29,  64. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians. 


151 


COIN  OF  GATTLOS. 


Phoenicians  acknowledged  some  whom  they  had  cer- 
tainly introduced  into  their  system  from  an  external 
source,  as  Osiris,  Animon,  and  Tanith.   The  worship 
of  Osiris  is  represented  on  the  coins  of  Gaulos,1  which 
was  an  early  Phoenician  settle- 
ment ;  and  "Osir"  (=  Osiris) 
occurs  not  unfrequently  as  an 
element  in  Phoenician  names,2 
where   it   occupies    the    exact 
place    elsewhere    assigned    to 
Baal,  Melkarth,and  Ashtoreth. 
Ammon   is   found   under    the 
form  Hammon  in  votive  tab- 
lets, but  does  not  occur  independently ;  it  is  always 
attached  as  an  epithet  to  Baal.3     Whether  it  deter- 
mines the  aspect  of  Baal  to  that  of  a  "  sun-god " 
may  be  questioned,4  since  the  original  idea  of  Ammon 
was  as  far  as  possible  remote  from  that  of  a  solar 
deity.5     But,  at  any  rate,   the  constant  connection 
shows  that  the  two  gods  were  not  really  viewed  as 
distinct,  but  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  Phoenicians 
their  own  Baal  corresponded  to  the  Ammon  of  the 
Egyptians,  both    alike    representing    the    Supreme 
Being.     Tanith  has  an  important  place  in  a  number 
of  the  inscriptions,  being  given  precedence  over  Baal 

1  Gesenius,  pi.  40,  A. 

2  Ibid.  pp.  96,  110,  180,  etc. 

*  Ibid.  pp.  108.  168,  174,  175,  177,  and  Davis,  "Carthage  and 
her  Remains,"  pi.  opp.  p.  256. 

*  This  was  the  opinion  of  Gesenius   ("Script.  Phoen.  Mon." 
p.  170) ;  but  his  arguments  upon  the  point  are  not  convincing. 

5  See  above,  p.  1.9. 


152  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

himself.1  She  was  worshipped  at  Carthage,  in 
Cyprus,2  by  the  Phoenician  settlers  at  Athens3  and 
elsewhere ;  but  we  have  no  proof  of  her  being  ac- 
knowledged in  Phoenicia  itself.  The  name  is  connected 
by  Gesenius  with  that  of  the  Egyptian  goddess 
JNeith,4  or  Net ;  but  it  seems  rather  to  represent  the 
Persian  Tanata,  who  was  known  as  Tanaitis  or 
Tanai's,  and  also  as  Anaitis  or  Aneitis  to  the  Greeks. 
Whether  there  was,  or  was  not,  a  remote  and  original 
connection  between  the  goddesses  Neith  and  Tanata 
is  perhaps  open  to  question  ;  but  the  form  of  the 
name  Tanith,  or  Tanath,5  shows  that  the  Phoenicians 
adopted  their  goddess,  not  from  Egypt,  but  from 
Persia.  With  regard  to  the  character  and  attributes 
of  Tanath,  it  can  only  be  said  that,  while  in  most 
respects  she  corresponded  closely  with  Ashtoreth, 
whom  she  seems  to  have  replaced  at  Carthage,  she 
had  to  a  certain  extent  a  more  elevated  and  a  severer 
aspect.  The  Greeks  compared  her  not  only  to  their 
Aphrodite,  but  also  to  their  Artemis,6  the  huntress- 

1  See  Gesenius,  pp.  168,  174,  175,  177;  Davis,  "Carthage  and 
her  Remains,"  1.  s.  c. 

2  Gesenius,  p.  151.  Compare  p.  146,  where  the  true  reading 
is  possibly  Abed-Tanith. 

3  Ibid.  p.  113.  4  Ibid,  pp>  n  7)  118> 

5  "  Tanath"  is  the  natural  rendering  of  the  Phoenician  word, 
rather  than  "  Tanith,"  and  is  preferred  by  some  writers.  (See 
Davis,  "Carthage  and  her  Remains,"  pp.  274-276.) 

6  In  a  bilingual  inscription  given  by  Gesenius,  the  Phoenician 
Abed-Tanath  becomes  in  the  Greek  "  Artemidorous."  Anaitis  or 
Tanata  is  often  called  "the  Persian  Artemis."  (See  Plutarch, 
"Vit.  Lucull."  p.  24;  Bochart,  "  Geographia  Sacra,"  iv.  19; 
Pausan.  iii.  16,  §  6,  etc  ) 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  153 

deity  whose  noble  form  is  known  to  us  from  many 
pure  and  exquisite  statues.  It  may  be  suspected  that 
the  Carthaginians,  dwelling  in  the  rough  and  warlike 
Africa,  revolted  against  the  softness  and  effeminacy 
of  the  old  Phoenician  cult,  and  substituted  Tanath 
for  Ashtoreth,  to  accentuate  their  protest  against  re- 
ligious sensualism.1 

It  seems  to  be  certain  that  in  Phoenicia  itself,  and 
in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Syria,  the  worship  of  Ash- 
toreth was  from  the  first  accompanied  with  licentious 
rites.  As  at  Babylon,2  so  in  Phoenicia  and  Syria — 
at  Byblus,  at  Ascalon,  at  Aphaca,  at  Hierapolis3 — 
the  cult  of  the  great  Nature-goddess  "tended  to 
encourage  dissoluteness  in  the  relations  between  the 
sexes,  and  even  to  sanctify  impurities  of  the  most 
abominable  description."4  Even  in  Africa,  where 
an  original  severity  of  morals  had  prevailed,  and 
Tanith  had  been  worshipped  "  as  a  virgin  with  mar- 
tial attributes,"  and  with  "severe,  not  licentious, 
rites,"5  corruption  gradually  crept  in;  and  by  the 
time  of  Augustine6  the  Carthaginian  worship  of  the 
"  celestial  goddess "  was  characterised  by  the  same 
impurity  as  that  of  Ashtoreth  in  Phoenicia  and  Syria. 

1  See   Davis's    "Carthage,"   p.   264;     Hunter,   "Keligion   des 
Karthager,"  c.  6. 

2  Herod,  i.  199. 

3  Herod,  i.  105;    Lucian,  tl  De  Dea  Syra/'  c.  ix  ;  EuseJb.  "Vit. 
Constantin.  Magni,"  iii.  55. 

4 Twistleton,  in    Smith's    "Dictionary  of  the    Bible,"    vol.   ii. 
p.  866. 

5  Kenrick,  "Phoenicia,"  p.  305. 

6  Augustine,  "De  Civitate  Dei,"  ii.  4. 


154  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Another  fearful  blot  on  the  religion  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians, and  one  which  belongs  to  Carthage  quite  as 
much  as  to  the  mother-country,1  is  the  systematic 
offering  of  human  victims,  as  expiatory  sacrifices,  to 
El  and  other  gods.  The  ground  of  this  horrible 
superstition  is  to  be  found  in  the  words  addressed  by 
Balak  to  Balaam2 — "  Wherewith  shall  I  come  before 
the  Lord,  and  bow  myself  before  the  high  God? 
Shall  I  come  before  Him  with  burnt  offerings,  with 
calves  of  a  year  old  ?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with 
thousands  of  rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of 
oil  ?  Shall  I  give  my  firstborn  for  my  transgression, 
the  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  f  As 
Philo  Byblius  expresses  it,3  "  It  was  customary 
among  the  ancients,  in  times  of  great  calamity  and 
danger,  that  the  rulers  of  the  city  or  nation  should 
offer  up  the  best  beloved  of  their  children,  as  an 
expiatory  sacrifice  to  the  avenging  deities :  and  these 
victims  were  slaughtered  mystically."  The  Phoe- 
nicians were  taught  that,  once  upon  a  time,  the  god 
El  himself,  under  the  pressure  of  extraordinary 
peril,  had  taken  his  only  son,  adorned  him  with 
royal  attire,  placed  him  as  a  victim  upon  an  altar, 
and  slain  him  with  his  own  hand.  Thenceforth,  it 
could  not  but  be  the  duty  of  rulers  to  follow  the 
divine  example  set   them;    and  even  private  indi- 

1See  Diod.  Sic.  xx.  14,  65;  Justin,  xviii.  6;  Sil.  ItaL  iv. 
765-768;  Dionys.  Hal.  i.  38;  etc.  Compare  Gesenius,  "Script. 
Phoen.  Mon."  pp.448,  449,  453;  and  Davis,  "  Carthage,"  pp. 
296,207. 

a  Micah  vi.  6,  7. 

3rhiloBybl.,  c.  vi.  \  3. 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians.  155 

viduals,  when  beset  by  difficulties,  might  naturally 
apply  the  lesson  to  themselves,  and  offer  up  their 
children  to  appease  the  divine  anger.  We  have  only 
too  copious  evidence  that  both  procedures  were  in 
vogue  among  the  Phoenicians.  Porphyry  declares 1 
that  "  the  Phoenician  history  was  full  of  instances, 
in  which  that  people,  when  suffering  under  great 
calamity  from  war,  or  pestilence,  or  drought,  chose 
by  public  vote  one  of  those  most  dear  to  them,  and 
sacrificed  him  to  Saturn."  Two  hundred  noble 
youths  were  offered  on  a  single  occasion  at  Carthage, 
after  the  victory  of  Agathocles.2  Hamilcar,  it  is 
possible,  offered  himself  as  a  victim  on  the  entire 
defeat  of  his  army  by  Gelo.3  When  Tyre  found 
itself  unable  to  resist  the  assault  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  the  proposition  was  made,  but  overruled,  to 
sacrifice  a  boy  to  Saturn.4  Every  year,  at  Carthage, 
there  was  at  least  one  occasion,  on  which  human 
victims,  chosen  by  lot,  were  publicly  offered  to  ex- 
piate the  sins  of  the  nation.5 

And  private  sacrifices  of  this  sort  went  hand  in 
hand  with  public  ones.  Diodorus  tell  us,6  that  in 
the  temple  of  Saturn  at  Carthage,  the  brazen  image 
of  the  god  stood  with  outstretched  hands  to  receive 
the  bodies  of  children  offered  to  it.  Mothers  brought 
their  infants  in  their  arms ;  and,  as  any  manifestation 

1  "De  Abstinentia,"  ii.  56. 

2  Lactant.  "Inst."  i.  21,  quoting  Pescennius  Festus. 

3  See  the  story  in  Herodotus  (vii.  167). 

*  Quint.  Curt.  "Vit.  Alex.  Magn."  iv.  15. 
sSilius  Ital.  iv.  765-768. 
6  Diod.  Sic.  xx.  14. 


156  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

of  reluctance  would  have  made  the  sacrifice  unaccep- 
table to  the  god,  stilled  them  by  their  caresses  till 
the  moment  when  they  were  handed  over  to  the 
image,  which  was  so  contrived  as  to  consign  what- 
ever it  received  to  a  glowing  furnace  underneath  it. 
Inscriptions  found  at  Carthage  record  the  offering  of 
such  sacrifices.1  They  continued  even  after  the 
Honian  conquest;  and  at  length  the  proconsul  Tibe- 
rius, in  order  to  put  down  the  practice,  hanged  the 
priests  of  these  bloody  rites  on  the  trees  of  their  own 
sacred  grove.2  The  public  exhibitions  of  the  sacri- 
fice thenceforth  ceased,  but  in  secret  they  still  con- 
tinued down  to  the  time  of  Tertullian.3 

The  Phoenicians  were  not  idolaters,  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word ;  that  is  to  say,  they  did  not  wor- 
ship images  of  their  deities.  In  the  temple  of 
Melkarth  at  Gades  there  was  no  material  emblem  of 
the  god  at  all,  with  the  exception  of  an  ever-burning 
fire.4  Elsewhere,  conical  stones,  called  bcetyli,  were 
dedicated  to  the  various  deities,5  and  received  a  cer- 
tain qualified  worship,  being  regarded  as  possessed 

1  Gesenius,  "  Script.  Phcen.  Mon.,"  pp.  448,  449.  An  inscrip- 
tion given  by  Dr.  Davis  ("Carthage  and  her  Remains,"  pp. 
296,  297)  refers  to  the  public  annual  sacrifice. 

2Tertull.  "Apologia,"  c.  ix. 

3  Ibid. 

4  Silius  Ital.  ii.  45... 

5  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  2;  Damasc.  ap.  Phot.  "  Bibliothec.''  p. 
10G5 ;  Hesych.  ad  voc.  Bairvlog.  It  has  been  proposed  to  ex- 
plain the  word  bsetulus  as  equivalent  to  Bcth-el,  "  House  of 
God,"  and  to  regard  the  Phoenicians  as  believing  that  a  deity 
dwelt  in  the  stone.     (Kenrick,  "  Phoenicia,"  p.  323,  note  4.) 


The  Religion  of  the  Phoenicians. 


157 


of  a  certain  mystic  virtue.1  These  stones  seem 
occasionally  to  have  been  replaced  by  pillars,  which 
were  set  up  in  front  of  the  temples,  and  had  sacrifices 
offered  to  them.2  The  pillars  might  be  of  metal,  of 
stone,  or  of  wood,  but  were 
most  commonly  of  the  last 
named  material,  aud  were 
called  by  the  Jews  asherahs, 
"  uprights. "  3  At  festive 
seasons  they  seem  to  have 
been  adorned  with  boughs 
of  trees,  flowers,  and  rib- 
ands, and  to  have  formed 
the  central  object  of  a  wor- 
ship which  was  of  a  sen- 
sual and  debasing  charac- 
ter. An  emblem  common 
in  the  Assyrian  sculptures 
is  thought  to  give  a  good 
idea  of  the  ordinary  appear- 
ance on  such  occasions  of  sacred  tree— asherah. 
these  asherahs. 

Worship  was  conducted  publicly  in  the  mode  usual 

1  The  original  bsetuli  were  perhaps  aeroliths,  which  were  re- 
garded as  divine,  since  they  had  fallen  from  the  sky. 

2Philo  Byblius,  c.  iii.  §  7.  On  the  pillar-worship  of  the 
Phoenicians,  see  Bunsen,  Egypt's  Place  in  Univ.  History,"  vol. 
iv.  pp.  208-212. 

3  Asherah  is  commonly  translated  by  "grove"  in  the  Authorised 
Version;  but  its  true  character  has  been  pointed  out  by  many 
critics.  (See  "Speaker's  Commentary,"  vol.  i.  pp.>  416,  417; 
•'Ancient  Monarchies,"  vol.  ii.  p.  8;  2nd  edition.) 


158  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

in  ancient  times,  and  comprised  praise,  prayer  and 
sacrifice.  The  victims  offered  were  ordinarily  animals,1 
though,  as  already  shown,  human  sacrifices  were  not 
infrequent.  It  was  usual  to  consume  the  victims  en- 
tirely upon  the  altars.2  Libations  of  wine  were  copi- 
ously poured  forth  in  honour  of  the  chief  deities,3  and 
incense  was  burnt  in  lavish  profusion.4  Occasionally 
an  attempt  was  made  to  influence  the  deity  invoked  by 
loud  and  prolonged  cries,  and  even  by  self-inflicted 
wounds  and  mutilation.5  Frequent  festivals  were  held, 
especially  one  at  the  vernal  equinox,  when  sacrifices 
were  made  on  the  largest  scale,  and  a  vast  concourse 
of  persons  was  gathered  together  at  the  chief  temples.6 
Altogether  the  religion  of  the  Phoenicians,  while 
possessing  some  redeeming  points,  as  the  absence  of 
images  and  deep  sense  of  sin  which  led  them  to 
sacrifice  what  was  nearest  and  dearest  to  them  to 
appease  the  divine  anger,  must  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  lowest  and  most  debasing  of  the  forms  of 
belief  and  worship  prevalent  in  the  ancient  world, 
combining  as  it  did  impurity  with  cruelty,  the  sanc- 
tion of  licentiousness  with  the  requirement  of  bloody 
rites,  revolting  to  the  conscience,  and  destructive  of 
any  right  apprehension  of  the  true  idea  of  God. 

1  Lucian,  "  De  Dea  Syra,"  \  49. 

2  Gesenius,  ''Script.  Phcen.  Mon."  pp.  446,447;  Movers,  "Das 
Opferwesen  der  Karthager,"  p.  71,  etc. 

3  Philo  Bybl.  c.  iv.  \  1. 

4  Virg.  "iEn."  i.  415. 

5  1  Kings  xviii.  26,  28;  Lucian,   "De  Dea  Syra,"  g  50;  Plu- 
tarch, "  De  Superstitione,"  p.  170,  c. 

6  Lucian,  "De  Dea  Syra,"  \  49. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  EELIGION  OF  THE  ETEUSCANS. 

"  Hetrusci,  religione  imbuti." — (He.  De  Div.  i.  42. 

rjIHE  religion  of  the  Etruscans,  or  Tuscans,  like 
-*-  that  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians,  is 
known  to  us  chiefly  from  the  notices  of  it  which 
have  come  clown  to  us  in  the  works  of  the  classical 
writers,  Greek  and  Latin.  It  has,  however,  the 
advantage  of  being  illustrated  more  copiously  than 
the  Phoenician  by  monuments  and  other  works  of  art 
found  in  the  country,  the  productions  of  native 
artists — works  which  in  some  respects  give  us  a  con- 
siderable insight  .into  its  inner  character.  On  the 
other  hand,  but  little  light  is  thrown  upon  it  by  the 
Etruscan  inscriptions,  partly  because  these  inscrip- 
tions are  almost  all  of  a  single  type,  being  short 
legends  upon  tombs,  partly  from  the  fact  that  the 
Etruscan  language  has  defied  all  the  efforts  made  to 
interpret  it,  and  still  remains,  for  the  most  part,  an 
insoluble,  or  at  any  rate  an  unsolved,  problem.  We 
are  thus  without  any  genuine  Etruscan  statements  of 
their  own  views  upon  religious  subjects,  and  are 
forced  to  rely  mainly  upon  the  reports  of  foreigners, 
who  looked  upon  the  system  only  from  without,  and 

159 


160  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

are  not  likely  to  have  fully  understood  it.  It  is  a 
further  disadvantage  that  our  informants  write  at  a 
time  when  the  Etruscans  had  long  ceased  to  be  a 
nation,  and  when  the  people,  haviug  been  subjected 
for  centuries  to  foreign  influences,  had  in  all  proba- 
bility modified  their  religious  views  in  many  impor- 
tant points. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  their  religion, 
whatever  it  was,  occupied  a  leading  position  in  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  Etruscan  nation. 
"With  Etruria,"  says  a  modern  writer,  "religion 
was  an  all-pervading  principle — the  very  atmosphere 
of  her  existence — a  leaven  operating  on  the  entire 
mass  of  society,  a  constant  pressure  ever  felt  in  one 
form  or  other,  a  power  admitting  no  rival,  all-ruling, 
all-regulating,  all-requiring.1  Livy  calls  the  Etrus- 
cans "a  race  which,  inasmuch  as  it  excelled  in  the 
art  of  religious  observances,  was  more  devoted  to 
them  than  any  other  nation."  2  Arnobius  says  that 
Etruria  was  "  the  creator  and  parent  of  superstition."  3 
The  very  name  of  the  nation,  Tusci,  was  derived  by 
some  from  a  root,  thuein,  "to  sacrifice,"  or  "make 
offerings  to  the  gods  " 4 — as  if  that  were  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  people.  While  famous  among  the 
nations  of  antiquity  for  their  art,  their  commerce, 
and   their   warlike    qualities,   the    Etruscans    were 

1  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  vol.  i.  Introduc- 
tion, p.  xlix. 

2  ''Gens  ante  omnes  alias  eo  magis  dedita  religionibus,  quod 
excelleret  arte  colendi  eas,"  Liv.  v.  1. 

s  Arnob.  "Adv.  Gentes,"  vii. 

4  Servius,  "Comment,  in  Virg.  JEn."  x.  1.  257. 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans. .  161 

above  all  else  celebrated  for  their  devotion  to  their 
religion,  and  for  "  the  zeal  and  scrupulous  care  with 
which  they  practised  the  various  observances  of  its 
rites  and  ceremonies."  1 

The  objects  of  worship  were  twofold,  including 
(1)  Deities  proper,  and  (2)  the  Lares,  or  ancestral 
spirits  of  each  family.  The  deities  proper  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes  :  first,  those  whose  sphere 
was  the  heaven,  or  some  portion  of  it ;  secondly, 
those  who  belonged  more  properly  to  earth ;  and 
thirdly,  those  of  the  infernal  regions,  or  nether  world, 
which  held  a  prominent  place  in  the  system,  and  was 
almost  as  much  in  the  thoughts  of  the  people  as  their 
"Amenti"  was  in  the  thoughts  of  the  Egyptians.2 

The  chief  deities  of  the  Heaven  were  the  follow- 
ing five :  Tina,  or  Tinia,  Cupra,  Menrva,  Usil  and 
Losna. 

Tina,  or  Tinia,  who  was  recognised  as  the  chief 
god,3  and  whom  the  Greeks  compared  to  their  Zeus, 
and  the  Romans  to  their  Jupiter,  seems  to  have  been 
originally  the  heaven  itself,  considered  in  its  entirety, 
and  thus  corresponded  both  in  name  and  nature  to 
the  Tien  of  the  Chinese,  with  whom  it  may  be  sus- 
pected that  the  Etruscans  had  some  ethnic  affinity. 
Tina  is  said  to  have  had  a  special  temple  dedicated 
to  his  honour  in  every  Etruscan  city,  and  in  every 

1  Smith,  "Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,"  vol, 
i   p.  865. 

2  See  above,  p.  33. 

3  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  "Introduction," 
p.  1 ;  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches,"  p.  132. 

11 


162  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

such  city  one  of  the  gates  bore  his  name.1  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  sometimes  worshipped  under  the 
appellation  of  Summanus,  which  perhaps  meant  "  the 
supreme  god."2  We  must  not,  however,  take  this 
term  as  indicative  of  a  latent  monotheism,  whereof 
there  is  no  trace  in  the  Etruscan  religion,  but  only 
as  a  title  of  honour,  or  at  most  as  a  recognition  of  a 
superiority  in  rank  and  dignity  on  the  part  of  this 
god,  who  was  primus  inter  pares,  the  presiding  spirit 
in  a  conclave  of  equals. 

Next  to  Tina  came  Cupra,  a  goddess,  who  appears 
to  have  also  borne  the  name  of  Thalna  or  Thana.3 
The  Greeks  compared  her  to  their  Hera,  and  the 
Romans  to  their  Juno,  or  sometimes  to  their  Diana, 
who  was  originally  the  same  deity.  Like  Tina, 
Cupra  had  a  temple  in  every  Etruscan  city,  and  a 
gate  named  after  her.4  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
she  was  a  personification  of  light,  or  day  ;5  but  this 
is  uncertain.  Her  name,  Thana,  looks  like  a  mere 
variant  of  Tina,  and  would  seem  to  make  her  a  mere 
feminine  form  of  the  sky-god,  his  complement  and 
counterpart,  standing  to  him  as  Amente  to  Amnion 
in  the  Egyptian,  or  as  Luna  to  Lunus  in  the  Roman 
mythology.    A  similar  relation  is  found  to  have  sub- 

1  Servius,  "  Comment    in  Virg.  iEn."  i.  422. 

2  Max  Midler,  "  Science  of  Religion,"  p.  376. 

3  The  name  Cupra  is  known  to  us  only  from  Strabo  ("Geo- 
graph."  y.  p.  241).     Thalna  is  found  on  Etruscan  monuments. 

4  Servius,  1.  s.  c. 

5  Gerhard,  "  Gottheiten  der  Etrusker,"  p.  40;  Taylor,  "Etrus- 
can Researches,"  p.  142. 


TJie  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  163 

sisted  between  the  two  chief  deities  of  the  Etruscan 
nether  world. 

The  third  among  the  celestial  deities  was  Menrva, 
or  Menrfa,  out  of  whom  the  Romans  made  their 
Minerva.  She  enjoyed  the  same  privileges  in  the 
Etruscan  cities  as  Tina  and  Cupra,  having  her  own 
temple  and  her  own  gate  in  each  of  them.1  Mr. 
Isaac  Taylor  believes  that  originally  she  represented 
the  half  light  of  the  morning  and  evening,  and  even 
ventures  to  suggest  that  her  name  signified  "the  red 
heaven,"  and  referred  to  the  flush  of  the  sky  at 
dawn  and  sunset.2  A  slight  confirmation  is  afforded 
to  this  view  by  the  fact  that  we  sometimes  find  two 
Menrvas  represented  in  a  single  Etruscan  work  of 
art.3  But  we  scarcely  possess  sufficient  materials 
for  determining  the  real  original  character  of  this 
deity.  It  was  probably  foreign  influence  that  brought 
her  ultimately  into  that  close  resemblance  which  she 
bears  to  Minerva  and  Athene*  on  the  mirrors  and 
vases,  where  she  is  represented  as  armed  and  bearing 
the  aegis.4 

Usil  and  Losna,  whom  we  have  ventured  to  join 
with  Tina,  Cupra,  and  Menrva  as  celestial  deities, 
appear  to  have  been  simply  the  Sun  and  the  Moon, 
objects  of  worship  to  so  many  ancient  nations.  Usil 
was  identified  with  the  Greek  Apollo  (called  Aplu  by 
the  Etruscans),  and  was  represented  as  a  youth  with 

1  Servius,  1.  s.  c. 

2  "Etruscan  Researches,"  p.  137. 

3  Ibid.  p.  138. 

4  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries,''  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p.  li. 


164  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

bow  and  arrows.1  Losna  had  the  crescent  for  her 
emblem,2  and  was  figured  nearly  as  Diana  by  the 
Romans.3 

Next  to  Usil  and  Losna  may  be  placed  in  a  group 
the  three  elemental  gods,  Sethlans,  the  god  of  fire, 
identified  by  the  Etruscans  themselves  with  the 
Greek  Hephaistos  and  the  Latin  Vulcan ;  Nethuns, 
the  water-god,  probably  the  same  as  Neptunus ;  and 
Phuphlans,  the  god  of  earth  and  all  earth's  products, 
who  is  well  compared  with  Dionysus  and  Bacchus.4 
Phuphlans  was  the  special  deity  of  Pupluna,  or  (as 
the  Romans  called  it)  Populonia.5  He  seems  to  have 
been  called  also  Vortumnus  or  Volturnus ; 6  and  in 
this  aspect  he  had  a  female  counterpart,  Voltumna, 
whose  temple  was  the  place  of  meeting  where  the 
princes  of  Etruria  discussed  the  affairs  of  the  Con- 
federation.7 

Another  group  of  three  consists  of  Turan,  Thesan, 
and  Turms,  native  Etruscan  deities,  as  it  would  seem, 
corresponding  more  or  less  closely  to  the  Aphrodite, 
Eos,  and  Hermes  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Venus, 
Aurora,  and  Mercurius  of  the  Romans.  Of  these 
Turan  is  the  most  frequently  found,  but  chiefly  in 
subjects   taken    from    the    Greek    mythology,  while 

i  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches,"  p.  143. 

2  Lanzi,  "Saggio  della  Lingua  Etrusca,"  vol.  ii.  p.  76. 

8  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p.  liv. 

4  Taylor,  ''Etruscan  Researches,''  p.  141;  Smith,  ''Diet,  of 
Greek  and  Rom.  Antiquities,"  vol.  i.  p.  865. 

5  Dennis,  ''Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  p.  242. 

6  Ibid.  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p.  liii. 
*  Liv.iv.  23,  61;  v.  17,  etc. 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  165 

Thesan  occurs  the  least  often.  According  to  one  view, 
the  name  Turms  is  the  mere  Etruscan  mode  of  writing 
the  Greek  word  Hermes/  the  true  native  name  having 
been  Camillus  or  Kamil.2  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  of  these  three  gods  was  much  worshipped  by  the 
Etruscans.  They  figured  in  the  mythology,  but  lay 
almost  outside  the  religion. 

The  main  character  in  which  the  gods  of  heaven 
and  earth  were  recognised  by  the  Etruscans  was  that 
of  rulers,  signifying,  and  sometimes  executing,  their 
will  by  means  of  thunder  and  lightning.  Nine  great 
gods,  known  as  the  Novensiles,  were  believed  to  have 
the  power  of  hurling  thunderbolts,  and  were  there- 
fore held  in  special  honour.3  Of  these  nine,  Tinia, 
Cupra,  Menrva,  and  Sethlans,  were  undoubtedly  four. 
Summanus  and  Yejovis,  who  are  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  thundering  gods,4  seem  to  be  mere  names  or  as- 
pects of  Tinia.  The  Etruscans  recognised  twelve 
sorts  of  thunder-bolts,  and  ascribed,  we  are  told,  to 
Tinia  three  of  them.5 

But  it  was  to  the  unseen  world  beneath  the  earth, 
the  place  to  which  men  went  after  death,  and  where 
the  souls  of  their  ancestors  resided,  that  the  Etruscans 
devoted  the  chief  portion  of  their  religious  thought ; 
and  with  this  were  connected  the  bulk  of  their  reli- 
gious observances.     Over  the  dark  realms  of  the  dead 

1  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches/'  p.  149. 

2  So  Callimachus  ap.  Serv.  in  Virg.  iEn.  xi.  1.  543. 

3  Varro,  ''De  Ling.  Lat."  v.  74;  Plin.  "  H.  N."  ii.  53;  Mani- 
lius  ap.  Arnob.  "Adv.  Gentes,"  iii.  38. 

4  Plin.  1.  s.  c. ;  Amm.  Marc.  xvii.  10,  \  2. 
*  Senec.  "Nat.  Qusest."  ii.  41. 


166  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

ruled  Mantus  and  Mania,  king  and  queen  of  Hades, 
the  former  represented  as  an  old  man,  wearing  a 
crown,  and  with  wings  on  his  shoulders,  and  bearing 
in  his  hands  sometimes  a  torch,  sometimes  two  or 
three  large  nails,  which  are  thought  to  indicate  "  the 
inevitable  character  of  his  decrees."1  Intimately  con- 
nected with  these  deities,  their  prime  minister  and 
most  active  agent,  cruel,  hideous,  half  human,  half 
animal,  the  chief  figure  in  almost  all  the  representa- 
tions of  the  lower  world,  is  the  demon,  Charun,  in 
name  no  doubt  identical  with  the  Stygian  ferryman 
of  the  Greeks,  but  in  character  so  different  that  it  has 
even  been  maintained  that  there  is  no  analogy  between 
them.2  Charun  is  "  generally  represented  as  a  squalid 
and  hideous  old  man  with  flaming  eyes  and  savage 
aspect ;  but  he  has,  moreover,  the  ears,  and  often  the 
tusks  of  a  brute,"  with  (sometimes)  "  negro  features 
and  complexion,  and  frequently  wings,"  3  so  that  he 
"  answers  well,  cloven  feet  excepted,  to  the  modern 
conception  of  the  devil."  His  brow  is  sometimes 
bound  round  by  snakes ;  at  other  times  he  has  a  snake 
twisted  round  his  arm ;  and  he  bears  in  his  hands 
almost  universally  a  huge  mallet  or  hammer,  up- 
raised, as  if  he  were  about  to  deal  a  death-stroke. 
When  death  is  being  inflicted  by  man,  he  stands  by, 
" grinning  with   savage  delight;"4  when  it  comes 

1  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p.  lvi. 

2  Ambrosch,  "  De  Charonte  Etrusco,"  quoted  by  Dennis,  vol. 
ii.  p.  206. 

3  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 
*Ibid.  p.  207. 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  167 

naturally,  he  is  almost  as  well  pleased ;  he  holds  the 
horse  on  which  the  departed  soul  is  to  take  its  jour- 
ney to  the  other  world,  bids  the  spirit  mount,  leads 
away  the  horse  by  the  bridle  or  drives  it  before  him, 
and  thus  conducts  the  deceased  into  the  grim  kingdom 
of  the  dead.1  In  that  kingdom  he  is  one  of  the  tor- 
mentors of  guilty  souls,  whom  he  strikes  with  his 
mallet,  or  with  a  sword,  while  they  kneel  before  him 
and  implore  for  mercy.  Various  attendant  demons 
and  furies,  some  male,  some  female,  seem  to  act  under 
his  orders,  and  inflict  such  tortures  as  he  is  pleased  to 
prescribe. 

It  must  be  supposed  that  the  Etruscan  conceived 
of  a  judgment  after  death,  and  of  an  apportionment 
of  rewards  and  punishments  according  to  desert.2 
But  it  is  curious  that  the  representations  in  the  tombs 
give  no  clear  evidence  of  any  judicial  process,  con- 
taining nothing  analogous  to  the  Osirid  trial,  the 
weighing  of  the  soul,  the  sentence,  and  the  award 
accordingly,  which  are  so  conspicuous  on  the  monu- 
ments of  Egypt.  Good  and  evil  spirits  seem  to  con- 
tend for  the  possession  of  souls  in  the  nether  world  ; 
furies  pursue  some,  and  threaten  them  or  torment 
them ;  good  genii  protect  others  and  save  them  from 
the  dark  demons,  who  would  fain  drag  them  to  the 
place  of  punishment.3  Souls  are  represented  in  a 
state   which  seems  to  be  intended  for  one  of  ideal 

1  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  pp.  193,  194. 

2  So  Dennis  and  others ;  but  there  is  a  want  of  distinct  evi- 
dence upon  the  point. 

3  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  193-198. 


168  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

happiness,  banqueting,  or  hunting,  or  playing  at 
games,  and  otherwise  enjoying  themselves ; l  but  the 
grounds  of  the  two  different  conditions  in  which  the 
departed  spirits  exist  are  not  clearly  set  forth,  and  it 
is  analogy  rather  than  strict  evidence  which  leads  us 
to  the  conclusion  that  desert  is  the  ground  on  which 
the  happiness  and  misery  are  distributed. 

Besides  Charun  and  his  nameless  attendant  demons 
and  furies,  the  Etruscan  remains  give  evidence  of  a 
belief  in  a  certain  small  number  of  genii,  or  spirits, 
having  definite  names,  and  a  more  or  less  distinct  and 
peculiar  character.  One  of  the  most  clearly  marked 
of  these  is  Vanth,  or  Death,  who  appears  in  several 
of  the  sepulchral  scenes,  either  standing  by  the  door 
of  an  open  tomb,  or  prompting  the  slaughter  of  a 
prisoner,  or  otherwise  encouraging  carnage  and  de- 
struction.2 Another  is  Kulmu,  "  god  of  the  tomb," 
who  bears  the  fatal  shears  in  one  hand  and  a  funeral 
torch  in  the  other,  and  opens  the  door  of  the  sepul- 
chre that  it  may  receive  into  it  a  fresh  inmate.3  A 
third  being  of  the  same  class  is  Nathuns,  a  sort  of 
male  fury,  represented  with  tusk-like  fangs  and  hair 
standing  on  end,  while  in  either  hand  he  grasps  a 
serpent  by  the  middle,  which  he  shakes  over  avengers, 
in  order  to  excite  them  to  the  highest  pitch  of  frenzy.4 

}  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  pp.  444-446. 

2  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches,"  pp.  100-102.  (For  the 
scenes  referred  to,  see  Micali,  "  Monumenti  Inediti,"  pi.  lx. ;  and 
Des  Vergers,  "  L'Etrurie  et  les  Etrusques,"  pi.  xxi.). 

s  Ibid.  p.  94. 

*  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches,"  p.  112. 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  169 

In  their  worship  the  Etruscans  sought,  first  of  all 
and  especially,  to  know  the  will  of  the  gods,  which 
they  believed  to  be  signified  to  man  in  three  princi- 
pal ways.  These  were  thunder  and  lightning,  which 
they  ascribed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  heavenly 
powers ;  the  flight  of  birds,  which  they  supposed  to 
be  subject  to  divine  guidance ;  and  certain  appear- 
ances in  the  entrails  of  victims  offered  in  sacrifice, 
which  they  also  regarded  as  supernaturally  induced 
or  influenced.  To  interpret  these  indications  of  the 
divine  will,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  class  of  per- 
sons trained  in  the  traditional  knowledge  of  the  signs 
in  question,  and  skilled  to  give  a  right  explanation 
of  them  to  all  inquirers.  Hence  the  position  of  the 
priesthood  in  Etruria,  which  was  "  an  all-dominant 
hierarchy,  maintaining  its  sway  by  an  arrogant  ex- 
clusive claim  to  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  will 
of  heaven,  and  the  decrees  of  fate."  l  The  Etruscan 
priests  were  not,  like  the  Egyptian,  the  teachers  of 
the  people,  the  inculcators  of  a  high  morality,  or  the 
expounders  of  esoteric  doctrines  on  the  subjects  of 
man's  relation  to  God,  his  true  aim  in  life,  and  his 
ultimate  destiny ;  they  were  soothsayers,2  who  sought 
to  expound  the  future,  immediate  or  remote,  to  warn 
men  against  coming  dangers,  to  suggest  modes  of 
averting  the  divine  anger,  and  thus  to  save  men  from 

i  Dennis,  "  Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  Introduction,  p. 
xxxix. 

2Cic.  "De  Divinatione,"  i.  p.  41,  42;  Senec.  "Nat.  Qusest." 
ii.  32;  Diod.  Sic.  v.  p.  316;  Dionys.  Hal.  ix.  p.  563;  Aulus  Gell. 
iv.  5;  Lucan,  "  Phars."  i.  1.  587,  etc. 


170  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

evils  which  would  otherwise  have  come  upon  them 
unawares  and  ruined  or,  at  any  rate,  greatly  injured 
them.  Men  were  taught  to  observe  the  signs  in  the 
sky,  and  the  appearance  and  flight  of  birds,  the 
sounds  which  they  uttered,  their  position  at  the  time, 
and  various  other  particulars;  they  were  bidden  to 
note  whatever  came  in  their  way  that  seemed  to  them 
unusual  or  abnormal,  and  to  report  all  to  the  priests, 
who  thereupon  pronounced  what  the  signs  observed 
portended,  and  either  announced  an  inevitable  doom,1 
or  prescribed  a  mode  whereby  the  doom  might  be 
postponed  or  averted.  Sometimes  the  signs  reported 
were  declared  to  affect  merely  individuals ;  but  fre- 
quently the  word  went  forth  that  danger  was  por- 
tended to  the  state ;  and  then  it  was  for  the  priest- 
hood to  determine  at  once  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  danger,  and  also  the  measures  to  be  adopted 
under  the  circumstances.  Sacrifices  on  a  vast  scale 
or  of  an  unusual  character  were  commonly  com- 
manded in  such  cases,  even  human  victims  being 
occasionally  offered  to  the  infernal  deities,  Mantus 
and  Mania,2  whose  wrath  it  was  impossible  to  ap- 
pease in  any  less  fearful  way.  Certain  books  in  the 
possession  of  the  hierarchy,  ascribed  to  a  half  divine, 

1  The  Etruscans  recognised  a  power  of  Fate,  superior  to  the 
great  gods  themselves,  Tinia  and  the  others,  residing  in  certain 
"  Di  Involuti,"  or  "  Di  Superiores,"  who  were  the  rulers  of  both 
gods  and  men  (Senec.  "Nat.  Qusest."  ii.  41). 

2  Especially  to  Mania  (Macrob.  "Saturnalia,"  i.  7).  Human 
sacrifices  are  thought  to  be  represented  in  the  Etruscan  remains 
(Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  190,  191). 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  171 

half  human  personage,  named  Tages,1  and  handed 
down  from  a  remote  antiquity,  contained  the  system 
of  divination  which  the  priests  followed,  and  guided 
them  in  their  expositions  and  requirements. 

Among  sacrificial  animals  were  included  the  bull, 
the  ass,  and  perhaps  the  wolf,2  though  this  is  dis- 
puted. The  victim,  brought  by  an  individual  citi- 
zen, was  always  offered  by  a  priest,  and  libations 
usually  accompanied  the  sacrifice.  Unbloody  offer- 
ings were  also  not  unfrequently  presented,  and  were 
burnt  upon  the  altar,  like  the  victims.3 

A  general  survey  of  the  Etruscan  remains  has 
convinced  the  most  recent  inquirers,  that  the  public 
worship  of  the  gods  in  the  temples,  which  were  to  be 
found  in  all  Etruscan  cities,  by  sacrifice,  libation,  and 
adoration,  played  but  a  very  small  part  in  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  nation.  "  The  true  temples  of  the 
Etruscans,"  it  has  been  observed,  "were  their 
tombs." 4  Practically,  the  real  objects  of  their  wor- 
ship were  the  Lares,  or  spirits  of  their  ancestors. 
Each  house  probably  had  its  lararium?  where  the 
master  of  the  household  offered  prayer  and  worship 

1  Lydus,  "De  Ostentis,"  §  27;  Cic.  "  De  Div."  ii.  23;  Ovid. 
"  Metamorpli."  xv.  553-559,  etc. 

2  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  189,  190. 

3  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  ii.  p.  191. 
*  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches, "  p.  49. 

5  On  the  Roman  lararium,  which  is  believed  to  have  been 
adopted  from  the  Etruscans,  see  an  article  in  Dr.  Smith's  "  Die* 
tionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,"  pp.  667,  668,  2nd 
edition. 


172  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

every  morning,  and  sacrifice  occasionally.1  And  each 
family  certainly  had  its  family  tomb,  constructed  on 
the  model  of  a  house,  in  which  the  spirits  of  its 
ancestors  were  regarded  as  residing.  "  The  tombs 
themselves,"  we  are  told,  "are  exact  imitations  of 
the  house.  There  is  usually  an  outer  vestibule, 
apparently  appropriated  to  the  annual  funeral  feast : 
from  this  a  passage  leads  to  a  large  central  chamber, 
which  is  lighted  by  windows  cut  through  the  rock. 
The  central  hall  is  surrounded  by  smaller  chambers, 
in  which  the  dead  repose.  On  the  roof  we  see  carved 
in  stone  the  broad  beam,  or  roof-tree,  with  rafters 
imitated  in  relief  on  either  side,  and  even  imitations 
of  the  tiles.  These  chambers  contain  the  corpses, 
and  are  furnished  with  all  the  implements,  orna- 
ments, and  utensils  used  in  life.  The  tombs  are,  in 
fact,  places  for  the  dead  to  live  in.  The  position  and 
surroundings  of  the  deceased  are  made  to  approxi- 
mate as  closely  as  possible  to  the  conditions  of  life. 
The  couches  on  which  the  corpses  repose  have  a  tri- 
clinial  arrangement,  and  are  furnished  with  cushions 
carved  in  stone;  and  imitations  of  easy-chairs  and 
footstools  are  carefully  hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Every- 
thing, in  short,  is  arranged  as  if  the  dead  were  reclin- 
ing at  a  banquet  in  their  accustomed  dwellings.  On 
the  floor  stand  wine-jars;  and  the  most  precious 
belongings  of  the  deceased — arms,  ornaments,  and 

1  In  the  Theodosian  Code  it  was  provided  that  no  one  should 
any  longer  worship  his  lar  with  fire  ("nullus  Larem  igne  vene- 
retur"),  or,  in  other  words,  continue  to  sacrifice  to  him.  (See 
Keightley's  "Mythology,"  p.  470.) 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  173 

mirrors — hang  from  the  roof,  or  are  suspended  on 
the  walls.  The  walls  themselves  are  richly  deco- 
rated, usually  being  painted  with  representations  of 
festive  scenes;  we  see  figures  in  gaily-embroidered 
garments  reclining  on  couches,  while  attendants  re- 
plenish the  goblets,  or  beat  time  to  the  music  of  the 
pipers.  Nothing  is  omitted  which  can  conduce  to 
the  amusement  or  comfort  of  the  deceased.  Their 
spirits  were  evidently  believed  to  inhabit  these  house- 
tombs  after  death,  just  as  in  life  they  inhabited  their 
houses."  x 

The  tombs  were  not  permanently  closed.  Once 
a  year  at  least,  perhaps  oftener,  it  was  customary 
for  the  surviving  relatives  to  visit  the  resting-place 
of  their  departed  dear  ones,  to  carry  them  offerings  as 
tokens  of  affectionate  regard,  and  solicit  their  favour 
and  protection.  The  presents  brought  included  por- 
trait-statues,'  cups,  dishes,  lamps,  armour,  vases, 
mirrors,  gems,  seals,  and  jewellery.2  Inscriptions 
frequently  accompanied  the  offerings;  and  these  show 
that  the  gifts  were  made,  not  to  the  spirit  of  the 
tomb,  or  to  the  infernal  gods,  or  to  any  other  deities, 
but  to  the  persons  whose  remains  were  deposited  in 
the  sepulchres.3  Their  spirits  were  no  doubt  regarded 
as  conciliated  by  the  presents ;  and,  practically,  it  is 
probable  that   far  more  value  was  attached  to  the 

1  Taylor,  "  Etruscan  Researches,"  pp.  46-48. 

2  Ibid.  pp.  271,  306,  etc. 

3  Without  accepting  all  Mr.  Taylor's  renderings  of  the  funereal 
inscriptions,  I  am  of  opinion  that  he  has  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing this  point. 


174  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

fostering  care  of  these  nearly  allied  protectors  than 
to  the  favour  of  the  awful  gods  of  earth  and  heaven, 
who  were  distant  beings,  dimly  apprehended,  and 
chiefly  known  as  wielders  of  thunderbolts. 

As  a  whole,  the  Etruscan  religion  must  be  pro- 
nounced one  of  the  least  elevating  of  the  forms  of 
ancient  belief.  It  presented  the  gods  mainly  under 
a  severe  and  forbidding  aspect,  as  beings  to  be 
dreaded  and  propitiated,  rather  than  loved  and  wor- 
shipped. It  encouraged  a  superstitious  regard  for 
omens  and  portents,  which  filled  the  mind  with  fool- 
ish alarms,  and  distracted  men  from  the  performance 
of  the  duties  of  every-day  life.  It  fostered  the  pride 
and  vanity  of  the  priestly  class  by  attributing  to 
them  superhuman  wisdom,  and  something  like  infal- 
libility, while  it  demoralised  the  people  by  forcing 
them  to  cringe  before  a  selfish  and  arrogant  hierar- 
chy. If  it  diminished  the  natural  tendency  of  men 
to  overvalue  the  affairs  of  this  transitory  life,  by 
placing  prominently  before  them  the  certainty  and 
importance  of  the  life  beyond  the  grave,  yet  its  in- 
fluence was  debasing  rather  than  elevating,  from  the 
coarseness  of  the  representations  which  it  gave  alike 
of  the  happines  sand  misery  of  the  future  state.  Where 
the  idea  entertained  of  the  good  man's  final  bliss 
makes  it  consist  in  feasting  and  carousing,1   and  the 

1  See  Dennis,  "Cities  and  Cemeteries,"  vol.  i.  p.  294:  "  They 
(the  Etruscans)  believed  in  the  materiality  of  the  soul ;  and  their 
Elysium  was  but  a  glorification  of  the  present  state  of  existence ; 
the  same  pursuits,  amusements,  and  pleasures  they  had  relished 
in  this  life  they  expected  in  the  next,  but  divested  of  their  sting, 
and    enhanced   by  increased  capacities  of  enjoyment.     To  cele- 


The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans.  175 

suffering  of  the  lost  arises  from  the  blows  and  wounds 
inflicted  by  demons,  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards 
and  punishments  loses  much  of  its  natural  force,  and 
is  more  likely  to  vitiate  than  to  improve  the  moral 
character.  The  accounts  which  we  have  of  the 
morality  of  the  Etruscans  are  far  from  favourable; 1 
and  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  vices  whereto 
they  were  prone  did  not  receive  a  stimulus,  rather 
than  a  check,  from  their  religion. 

brate  the  great  event,  to  us  so  solemn  (i.  e.,  death),  by  feasting 
and  joviality,  was  not  with  them  unbecoming.  They  knew  not 
how  to  conceive  or  represent  a  glorified  existence  otherwise  than 
by  means  of  the  highest  sensual  enjoyment."  (Compare  pp. 
443-448.) 

xSee  the  Author's  "  Origin  of  Nations,"  pp.  129,  130. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RELIGION    OF   THE   ANCIENT   GREEKS. 

"The  Greek  religion  was  the  result  of  the  peculiar  develop- 
ment and  history  of  the  Grecian  people." — Dollinger,  Jew  and 
Gentile,  vol.  i.  p.  68. 

THAT  "in  general  the  Greek  religion  may  be 
correctly  described  as  a  worship  of  Nature ;  and 
that  most  of  its  deities  corresponded  either  to  certain 
parts  of  the  sensible  world,  or  to  certain  classes  of 
objects  comprehended  under  abstract  notions,"  is  a 
remark  of  Bishop  Thirl  wall1  in  which  most  critics 
at  the  present  day  will  acquiesce  Avith  readiness. 
Placed  in  a  region  of  marked  beauty  and  variety,  and 
sympathising  strongly  with  the  material  world  around 
him,  the  lively  Greek  saw  in  the  objects  with  which 
he  was  brought  into  contact,  no  inert  mass  of  dull 
and  lifeless  matter,  but  a  crowd  of  mighty  agencies, 
full  of  a  wonderful  energy.  The  teeming  earth,  the 
quickening  sun,  the  restless  sea,  the  irresistible  storm, 
every  display  of  superhuman  might  which  he  beheld, 
nay,  all  motion  and  growth,  impressed  him  with  the 
sense  of  something  living  and  working.  He  did  not, 
however,  like  his  Indian  brother,  deify  (as  a  general 

1  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  217. 
176 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  177 

rule)  the  objects  themselves ;  or,  at  any  rate,  if  he  had 
ever  done  so,  it  was  in  a  remote  past,  of  which  lan- 
guage alone  retained  the  trace ; l  he  did  not,  in  the 
times  in  which  he  is  really  known  to  us,  worship  the 
storm,  or  the  sun,  or  the  earth,  or  the  ocean,  or  the 
winds,  or  the  rivers,  but,  by  the  power  of  his  imagi- 
nation, he  invested  all  these  things  with  personality. 
Everywhere  around  him,  in  all  the  different  localities, 
and  departments,  and  divisions,  and  subdivisions  of 
the  physical  world,  he  recognised  agencies  of  unseen 
beings  endued  with  life,  volition,  and  design.  Nature 
was  peopled  for  him  with  a  countless  multitude  of 
such  invisible  powers,  some  inhabiting  the  earth, 
some  the  heaven,  some  the  sea,  some  the  dark  and 
dreadful  region  beneath  the  earth,  into  which  the 
sun's  rays  could  not  penetrate.  "  Of  such  beings," 
as  Mr.  Grote  observes,2  "  there  were  numerous  varie- 
ties, and  many  gradations  both  in  power  and  attri- 
butes ;  there  were  differences  of  age,  sex,  and  local 
residence,  relations,  both  conjugal  and  filial,  between 
them,  and  tendencies  sympathetic  as  well  as  repug- 
nant. The  gods  formed  a  sort  of  political  community 
of  their  own,  which  had  its  hierarchy,  its  distributions 
of  ranks  and  duties,  its  contentions  for  power,  and 
occasional  revolutions,  its  public  meetings  in  the 
agora  of  Olympus,  and  its  multitudinous  banquets 
or  festivals.     The  great  Olympic  gods  were,  in  fact, 

1  Zeus  may  have  been  once  Dyaus,  "the  sky"  (Max  Muller, 
"Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  ii.  p.  7*2)  ;  but  the  word 
very  early  "  became  a  proper  name"  and  designated  a  person. 

2  '•  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  pp.  4G3-465. 

12 


178  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

only  the  most  exalted  amongst  an  aggregate  of  quasi- 
human  or  ultra-human  personages — daemons,  heroes, 
nymphs,  eponymous  genii,  identified  with  each  river, 
mountain,  cape,  town,  village,  or  known  circumscrip- 
tion of  territory,  besides  horses,  bulls,  and  dogs,  of 
immortal  breed  and  peculiar  attributes,  monsters  of 
strange  lineaments  and  combinations — i  Gorgons,  and 
Hydras,  and  Chimseras  dire' — and  besides  l gentile 
and  ancestral  deities/  and  '  peculiar  beings  whose 
business  it  was  to  co-operate  or  impede  in  the  various 
stages  of  each  trade  or  business/ 

Numerous  additions  might  be  made  to  this  list. 
Not  only  had  each  mountain  chain  and  mountain-top 
a  separate  presiding  god  or  goddess,  but  troops  of 
Oreads  inhabited  the  mountain  regions,  and  dis- 
ported themselves  among  them  ;  not  only  was  there 
a  river-god  to  each  river,  a  Simoi's  and  a  Scamancler, 
an  Enipeus  and  an  Achelous,  but  every  nameless 
stream  and  brooklet  had  its  water-nymph,  every 
spring  and  fountain  its  naiad  ;  wood-nymphs  peopled 
the  glades  and  dells  of  the  forest  regions  ;  air-gods 
moved  in  the  zephyrs  and  the  breezes;  each  indi- 
vidual oak  had  its  dryad.  To  the  gods  proper  were 
added  the  heroes,  gods  of  a  lower  grade,  and  these 
are  spoken  of  as  "thirty  thousand  in  number, 
guardian  daemons,  spirits  of  departed  heroes,  who  are 
continually  walking  over  earth,  veiled  in  darkness, 
watching  the  deeds  of  men,  and  dispensing  weal  or 


1  Thirl  wall,    "History   of  Greece,"    vol.  i.  p.  235.     Compare 
Hesiod,  "Works  and  Days,"  1.  250. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  179 

It  is  this  multiplicity  of  the  objects  of  worship, 
together  with  their  lively  active  personality,  which 
forms  the  first  striking  feature  of  the  ancient  Greek 
religion,  and  naturally  attracts  the  attention  of  ob- 
servers in  the  first  instance.  Nowhere  have  we  such 
a  multitudinous  pantheon.  Not  only  was  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  external  nature  reflected  in  the  spiritual 
world  as  in  a  mirror,  but  every  phase,  and  act,  and 
circumstance  of  human  life,  every  quality  of  the 
mind,  every  attribute  of  the  body,  might  be,  generally 
was,  personified,  and  became  a  divine  being.  Sleep 
and  Death,  Old  Age  and  Pain,  Strength,  Force, 
Strife,  Victory,  Battle,  Murder,  Hunger,  Dreaming, 
Memory,  Forgetfulness,  Lawlessness,  Law,  Fore- 
thought, Afterthought,  Grief,  Ridicule,  Retribution, 
Recklessness,  Deceit,  Wisdom,  Affection,  Grace,  were 
gods  or  goddesses,  were  presented  to  the  mind  as 
persons,  and  had  their  place  in  the  recognised 
Theogonies,1  or  systematic  arrangements  of  the  chief 
deities  according  to  supposed  relationship  and  descent. 
Similarly,  the  facts  of  Nature,-  as  distinct  from  her 
parts,  were  personified  and  worshipped,  Chaos,  Day, 
Night,  Time,  the  Hours,  Dawn,  Darkness,  Light- 
ning, Thunder,  Echo,  the  Rainbow,  were  persons — 
"  persons,  just  as  much  as  Zeus  and  Apollo  " 2 — though 
not,  perhaps,  so  uniformly  regarded  in  this  light. 

Another  leading  feature  in  the  system  is  the  exis- 
tence of  marked  gradations  of  rank  and  power  among 

1  Hesiod,  "Theogon."  11.  114-2G4;  Apollodorus,  "  Bibliotheca," 
i.  1-6. 

2  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  2. 


180  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

the  sods,  who  fall  into  at  least  five  definite  classes,1 
clearly  distinguished  the  one  from  the  other.  First 
and  foremost  come  the  Olympic  deities,  twelve  in 
number,  six  male  and  six  female,  but  not  as  a  rule 
connected  together  in  pairs — Zeus,  Poseidon,  Apollo, 
Ares,  Hephaestus,  Hermes,  Hera,  Athen§,  Artemis, 
Aphrodite,  Hestia,  and  Demeter.  Next  in  order  are 
the  great  bulk  of  the  gods  and  goddesses,  Hades, 
Dionysus,  Cronus,  Uranus,  Hyperion,  Helios,  Nereus, 
Proteus,  iEolus,  Leto,  Dione,  Persephone,  Hecate^ 
Selen§,  Themis,  Harmonia,  the  Graces,  the  Muses, 
the  Fates,  the  Furies,  the  Eileithyise,  the  Oceanids, 
the  Nereids,  the  Nymphs,  the  Naiads,  and  the  like. 
In  the  third  rank  may  be  placed  the  deities  who  act 
as  attendants  on  the  greater  gods,  and  perform  ser- 
vices for  them,  Iris,  the  messenger  of  Jove,  Heb6,  his 
cup-bearer,  Kratos  and  Bia,  the  servants  of  Hephaes- 
tus,2 Boreas,  Notus,  etc.,  subordinates  of  iEolus,  the 
Hours,  handmaids  of  Aphrodite,  etc.  Fourthly,  we 
may  name  the  more  shadowy  gods  and  goddesses, 
Night,  Day,  Ether,  Dawn,  Darkness,  Death,  Sleep, 
Strife,  Memory,  Fame,  Retribution,  Recklessness,  etc., 
who  do  not  often  appear  as  deities  except  in  poetry, 
and  are  perhaps  rather  personifications  consciously 
made  than  real  substantive  divinities.  Finally  must 
be  mentioned  the  monstrous  births  ascribed  to  certain 
divine  unions  or  marriages,  e.  g.,  the  C1yclopes,  and 
Centimani,  the  offspring  of  Earth  and  Heaven  (Grea 
and  Uranus);   the  Harpies,  daughters  of  Thaumas 

1  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  pp.  14,  15. 
2J3ee  ^Eschyl.  "Prom.  Vinci."  sub  nut. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  181 

and  Electra,  one  of  the  Oceanidse ;  the  Gorgons  and 
Grseae,  children  of  Phorcys  and  Ceto ;  Chrysaor  and 
Pegasus,  born  of  the  blood  of  Medusa,  when  she  was 
slain  by  Perseus ;  Geryon  and  Echidna,  sprung  from 
Chrysaor  and  Callirrhoe ;  Orthros,  the  two-headed 
dog  of  Geryon,  born  of  Typhaon  and  Echidna ;  Cer- 
berus, the  dog  of  Hades,  with  fifty  heads ;  Scylla  and 
Charybdis;  the  Lernsean  Hydra,  the  Sphinx  of 
Thebes,  the  Nemean  Lion,  the  Dragon  of  the  Hes- 
perides,  the  Centaurs,  the  Chimaera,  etc.,  etc. 

The  chief  interest  naturally  attaches  to  the  gods 
of  the  First  Order,  those  commonly  denominated 
"  Olympic ;"  and,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  some 
account  must  necessarily  be  given  of  the  twelve  dei- 
ties who  constituted  the  Olympian  council. 

ZEUS. 

At  the  head  of  all,  occupying  a  position  quite 
unique  and  unlike  that  of  any  other,  stood  the  great 
Zeus.  Zeus  is  "  the  God,  or,  as  he  is  called  in  later 
times,  the  Father  of  the  gods,  and  the  God  of  gods. 
When  we  ascend  to  the  most  distant  heights  of  Greek 
history,  the  idea  of  God,  as  the  Supreme  Being,  stands 
before  us  as  a  simple  fact/' l  "  Zeus,"  said  an  ancient 
poet,  "  is  the  beginning ;  Zeus  the  middle ;  out  of 
Zeus  have  all  things  been  made."  Zeus  was  "  the 
lord  of  the  upper  regions,  who  dwelt  on  the  summits 
of  the  highest  mountains,  gathered  the  clouds  about 
him,  shook  the  air  with  his  thunder,  and  wielded  the 
lightning  as  the  instrument  of  his  wrath.  From 
i  Max  M  tiller,  "  Chips,"  vol.  ii.  p.  148. 


182  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

elements  drawn  from  these  different  sources  his  char- 
acter, a  strange  compound  of  strength  and  weakness, 
seems  to  have  been  formed  by  successive  poets,  who, 
if  they  in  some  degree  deserved  the  censure  of  the 
philosophers,  seem  at  least  not  to  have  been  guilty  of 
any  arbitrary  fictions;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  by 
establishing  his  supremacy  they  introduced  (?)  a  prin- 
ciple of  unity  into  the  Greek  polytheism,  which  was 
not  perhaps  without  influence  on  the  speculations  of 
the  philosophers  themselves,  though  it  exerted  little 
on  the  superstitions  of  the  vulgar.  The  Olympian 
deities  are  assembled  round  Zeus  as  his  family,  in 
which  he  maintains  the  mild  dignity  of  a  patriarchal 
king.  He  assigns  their  several  provinces,  and  con- 
trols their  authority.  Their  combined  efforts  cannot 
give  the  slightest  shock  to  his  power,  nor  retard  the 
execution  of  his  will ;  and  hence  their  waywardness, 
even  when  it  incurs  his  rebuke,  cannot  ruffle  the  in- 
ward serenity  of  his  soul.  The  tremendous  nod, 
wherewith  he  confirms  his  decrees,  can  neither  be  re- 
voked nor  frustrated.  As  his  might  is  irresistible, 
so  is  his  wisdom  unsearchable.  He  holds  the  golden 
balance  in  which  are  poised  the  destinies  of  nations 
and  of  men ;  from  the  two  vessels  that  stand  at  his 
threshold  he  draws  the  good  and  evil  gifts  that  alter- 
nately sweeten  and  embitter  mortal  existence.  The 
eternal  order  of  things,  the  ground  of  the  immutable 
succession  of  events,  is  his,  and  therefore  he  himself 
submits  to  it.  Human  laws  derive  their  sanction 
from  his  ordinance  ;  earthly  kings  receive  their  sceptre 
from  his  hand ;  he  is  the  guardian  of  social  rights ; 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  183 

he  watches  over  the  fulfilment  of  contracts,  the  obser- 
vance of  oaths ;  he  punishes  treachery,  arrogance, 
and  cruelty.  The  stranger  and  the  suppliant  are 
under  his  peculiar  protection  j  the  fence  that  encloses 
the  family  dwelling  is  in  his  keeping ;  he  avenges 
the  denial  and  the  abuse  of  hospitality.  Yet  even 
this  greatest  and  most  glorious  of  beings,  as  he  is 
called,  is  subject,  like  the  other  gods,  to  passion  and 
frailty.  For,  though  secure  from  dissolution,  though 
surpassingly  beautiful  and  strong,  and  warmed  with 
a  purer  blood  than  fills  the  veins  of  men,  their  hea- 
venly frames  are  not  insensible  to  pleasure  and  pain ; 
they  need  the  refreshment  of  ambrosial  food,  and  in- 
hale a  grateful  savour  from  the  sacrifices  of  their 
worshippers.  Their  other  affections  correspond  to 
the  grossness  of  these  animal  appetites.  Capricious 
love  and  hatred,  anger  and  jealousy,  often  disturb  the 
calm  of  their  bosoms ;  the  peace  of  the  Olympian  state 
might  be  broken  by  factions,  and  even  by  conspiracies 
formed  against  its  chief.  He  himself  cannot  keep 
perfectly  aloof  from  their  quarrels ;  he  occasionally 
wavers  in  his  purpose,  is  overruled  by  artifice,  blinded 
by  desires,  and  hurried  by  resentment  into  unseemly 
violence.  The  relation  in  which  he  stands  to  Fate  is 
not  uniformly  represented  in  the  Homeric  poems,  and 
probably  the  poet  had  not  formed  a  distinct  notion 
of  it.  Fate  is  generally  described  as  emanating  from 
his  will,  but  sometimes  he  appears  to  be  no  more  than 
the  minister  of  a  stern  necessity,  which  he  wishes  in 
vain  to  elude." l 

1  Thirlwall,  u  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  pp.  217-219. 


184  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

And  Zeus  bears  to  man  the  relation  of  "  father." 
Each  mortal  who  has  a  supplication  to  make  to  him, 
may  address  him  as  Zeu  nd-sp,  "  God  (our)  Father." 
He  bears,  as  one  of  his  most  usual  titles,  the  designa- 
tion of  "  Father  of  gods  and  men."  As  St.  Paul  says,1 
quoting  a  Greek  poet,  "we  are  his  offspring."  The 
entire  passage  where  these  words  occur  is  remarkable, 
and  very  instructive  on  the  Grecian  idea  of  Zeus. 

"With  Zeus  begin  we — let  no  mortal  voice 
Leave  Zeus  unpraised.     Zeus  fills  the  haunts  of  men, 
The  streets,  the  marts — Zeus  fills  the  sea,  the  shores, 
The  harbours — everywhere  we  live  in  Zeus. 
We  are  his  offspring  too;  friendly  to  man, 
He  gives  prognostics  ;  sets  men  to  their  toil 
By  need  of  daily  bread  :  tells  when  the  land 
Must  be  upturned  by  ploughshare  or  by  spade — 
What  time  to  plant  the  olive  or  the  vine — 
What  time  to  fling  on  earth  the  golden  grain. 
For  He  it  was  who  scattered  o'er  the  sky 
The  shining  stars,  and  fixed  them  where  they  are — 
Provided  constellations  through  the  year. 
To  mark  the  seasons  in  their  changeless  course. 
Wherefore  men  worship  Him — the  First — the  Last — 
Their  Father— Wonderful— their  Help  and  Shield."  2 

A  pantheistic  tinge  pervades  this  description ;  but 
still  in  parts  it  approaches  to  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful and  sublime  expressions  of  Holy  Writ.3     It 

1  Acts  xvii.  28. 

3  Aratus,  "Phenomena,"  1L  1-15. 

8  Compare  "  every  where  we  live  in  Zeus"  with  "in  Him  we 
live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being"  (Acts  xvii.  28) — the  pro- 
vision of  constellations  with  Gen.  i.  14— the  term  "Wonderful" 
with  Isa.  ix.  6— "the  First,  the  Last"  with  Rev.  i.  8,  11,  etc."  — 
♦'their  Help  and  Shield"  with  Psa.  xviii.  2;  xlvi.  1,  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient   Greeks.  185 

presents  Zeus  to  us  as  omnipresent,  beneficent,  wor- 
thy of  perpetual  praise,  our  father,  our  help  and  de- 
fence, our  support  and  stay.  It  sets  him  forth  as 
"wonderful,"  or  rather  "a  mighty  wonder" — /jtiya 
Oaufia — a  being  beyond  our  power  to  comprehend, 
whom  we  must  be  content  to  reverence  and  admire. 
It  recognises  him  as  having  hung  the  stars  in  the 
blue  vault  of  heaven,  and  having  set  them  there 
"  for  signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days,  and  years." 
It  calls  him  "the  First"  and  "the  Last"— the  Al- 
pha and  the  Omega  of  being. 

Such  is  the  strength  of  Zeus,  according  to  the 
Greek  idea;  but  withal  there  is  a  weakness  about 
him,  which  sinks  him,  not  only  below  the  "Al- 
mighty" of  Scripture,  but  even  below  the  Ormazd 
of  the  Persians.  He  has  a  material  frame,  albeit  of 
an  ethereal  and  subtle  fibre;  and  requires  material 
sustenance.  According  to  some  of  the  myths,  he 
was  born  in  time ;  according  to  all,  he  was  once  a 
god  of  small  power.  Heaven  had  its  revolutions  in 
the  Greek  system :  and  as  the  sovereignty  of  Olym- 
pus had  passed  from  Uranus  to  Cronus,  and  from 
Cronus  to  Zeus  in  former  times,  so  in  the  future  it 
might  pass,  and  according  to  some,  was  doomed  to 
pass,  from  Zeus  to  another.1  Nor  was  he  without 
moral  defect.  A  rebellious  son,  a  faithless  husband, 
not  always  a  kind  father,  he  presented  to  the  moral 
consciousness  no  perfect  pattern  for  man's  imitation, 
but  a  strange  and  monstrous  combination  of  wicked- 

i  JEschyl.  "Prom.  Vinct."  11.  939-959. 


186  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

ness  with  high  qualities,  of  weakness  with  strength, 
of  good  with  evil.1 

POSEIDON. 

Poseidon  is  reckoned  as  the  second  of  the  Olympic 
gods,  rather  as  being,  in  the  mythology,  the  brother 
of  Zeus,  than  from  any  superiority  of  his  own  over 
the  rest  of  the  Olympians.2  He  is  viewed  as  espe- 
cially the  god  of  the  sea,  and  is  worshipped  chiefly 
by  maritime  states  and  in  cities  situated  on  or  near 
the  coast;  but  he  has  also  a  considerable  hold  upon 
the  land,  and  is  "  earth-shaking "  and  "  earth-pos- 
sessing," quite  as  decidedly  as  sovereign  ruler  of  the 
seas  and  ocean.  His  worship  is  ancient,  and  in  many 
places  has  given  way  to  an  introduction  of  later  and 
more  fashionable  deities.  It  has  traces  of  a  rudeness 
and  roughness  that  are  archaic,  and  stands  connected 
with  the  more  grotesque  and  barbarous  element  in 
the  religion.  "Among  his  companions  are  wild 
Titans  and  spiteful  demons," 3  human  sacrifices  are 
offered  to  him;  horses  are  buried  alive  in  his  hon- 
our; Polyphemus  the  Cyclops,  whom  Ulysses  pun- 
ishes, is  his  son ;  and  his  offspring  generally  are  noted 
for  huge  size  and  great  corporeal  strength.4  It  has 
been  maintained  that  his  cult  was  of  foreign  origin, 
having   been  introduced  among  the  Greeks  by  the 

1  Compare  Mr.  Gladstone's  remarks  in  his  "Homer  and  the 
Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  186-190. 

2  Poseidon  claims  in  the  il Iliad"  an  authority  within  his  own 
domain  independent  of  Zeus  ("Iliad,"  xv.  174  et  seqq.),  but  exer- 
cises no  right  of  rule  over  any  other  god. 

3  Curtius,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  56. 
*  Horn.  "Odyssey,"  xi.  505-520. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient   Greeks.  187 

Oarians,1  or  by  the  Libyans ; 2  but  there  are  no  suf- 
ficient grounds  for  these  refinements,  or  for  separat- 
ing off  Poseidon  from  the  bulk  of  the  Olympic  dei- 
ties, admittedly  of  native  growth,  and  having  a  gene- 
ral family  resemblance.  If  Poseidon  is  cast  in  a 
ruder  and  rougher  mould  than  most  of  the  others, 
we  may  account  for  it  by  the  character  of  his  ele- 
ment, and  the  boisterousness  of  sailors,  who  were  at 
all  times  his  principal  worshippers.  Poseidon's 
roughness  is  compensated  for  by  a  solidity  and 
strength  of  character,  not  too  common  among  the 
Grecian  deities;  he  is  not  readily  turned  from  his 
purpose ;  blandishments  have  little  effect  upon  him ; 
failure  does  not  discourage  him ;  he  is  persistent, 
and  generally,  though  not  always,  successful.  His 
hostility  to  Troy,  arising  from  his  treatment  by  Lao- 
medon,  conduced  greatly  towards  that  city's  destruc- 
tion ;  and  the  offence  which  he  took  at  the  decision 
of  Erechtheus  led  to  the  final  overthrow  of  that 
hero's  family.  On  the  other  hand,  his  persecution 
of  Ulysses,  on  account  of  the  chastisement  which  he 
had  inflicted  on  Polyphemus,  does  not  prevent  the 
final  return  of  that  much-enduring  wanderer  to 
Ithaca,  nor  does  his  opposition  succeed  in  hindering 
the  settlement  of  iEneas,  with  his  Trojan  companions, 
in  Latium.  For  grandeur  and  sublimity  of  character 
and  position  Poseidon  caunot  compare  with  Zeus, whom 

1  Curtius,  vol.  i.  p. 298:  "The  Carians  introduced  [into  Greece] 
the  worship  of  the  Carian  Zeus,  and  of  Poseidon." 

2  Herod,  ii.  50:  iv.  188. 


188  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

however,  he  sometimes  ventures  to  beard;1  in  re- 
spect of  moral  conduct  he  is  in  no  way  Zeus's  supe- 
rior ;  in  respect  of  intellectual  elevation  he  falls  de- 
cidedly below  him. 

APOLLO. 

The  conception  of  Apollo  as  the  sun  is  a  late  form 
of  Hellenic  belief,  and  must  be  wholly  put  aside 
when  we  are  considering  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Apollo  seems  to  have  been  originally,  like 
Zeus,  a  representation  of  the  one  God,  originating 
probably  in  some  part  of  Greece  where  Zeus  was 
unknown,2  and  subsequently  adopted  into  the  system 
prevalent  in  Homeric  times,  and  in  this  system  sub- 
ordinated to  Zeus  as  his  son  and  interpreter.  Com- 
pared with  Zeus,  he  is  a  spiritualised  conception. 
Zeus  is  the  embodiment  of  creative  energy  and 
almighty  power:  Apollo  of  divine  prescience,  of 
healing  skill,  and  of  musical  and  poetic  production. 
"  In  Apollo  Hellenic  polytheism  received  its  har- 
monious completion,  and  the  loftiest  glorification  of 
which  it  was  capable."3 

Apollo  rises  on  the  vision  of  one  familiar  with 
Greek  antiquity  as  almost  a  pure  conception,  almost 
an  angelic  divinity.  To  a  form  of  ideal  beauty, 
combining  youthful  grace  and  vigour  with  the  fullest 
perfection  of  manly  strength,  he  added  unerring 
wisdom,    complete    insight    into    futurity,    an    uu- 

iHom.  "Iliacl,"  xv.  175. 

2  Curtius  suggests  Lycia   or  Crete  ("History  of  Greece,"  vol. 
I  p.  59). 
s  Ibid. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  189 

stained  life,  l  the  magic  power  of  song,  ability  and 
will  to  save  and  heal,  together  with  the  dread  prero- 
gative of  dealing  out  at  his  pleasure  destruction  and 
death.     Compassionate  on  occasions  as  Mercy  herself, 
he  shows  at  times  the  keen  and  awful  severity  of  a 
destroying    archangel.       Ehebolos,    "striking    from 
afar,"  he  speeds  his  fatal  shafts  from  his  unfailing 
bow,  and  smites  whomsoever  he  will  with  a  death- 
stroke  which  there  is  no  escaping.     Never  offended 
without  cause,  never  moved  by  caprice,  he  works  the 
will  of  Zeus  in  all  that  he  does,  dispenses  retributive 
justice,  and  purifies  with  wholesome  fear  the  souls  of 
men.     Partaker  of  all  the  counsels  of  his  father,  and 
permitted  to  use  his   discretion    in    communicating 
them  to  the  denizens  of  earth,  he  delivers  his  oracular 
responses  from  the  various  spots  which  he  has  chosen 
as   his   special    abodes,  and,  though    sometimes  his 
replies  may  be  of  doubtful    import,  seldom   sends 
away  a  votary  unsatisfied.     The  answers  which  he 
gives,  or  at  any  rate  is  supposed  to  give,  determine 
the  decisions  of  statesmen,2  and  shape  the  course  of 
history.     War  and  peace,  treaties  and  alliances,  are 
made  and  unmade,  as  the  Delphic  and  other  oracles 
inspired  by  him  advise ;  and  the  course  of  Hellenic 
colonisation   is   almost  entirely  determined   by  his 
decrees.3 

Poet,  prophet,  physician,  harper,  god  of  victory 

i  See  this  point  discussed  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  "  Homer  and  the 
Homeric  Age,"  (vol.  ii.  pp.  106-111). 

2  Herod,  vii.  140-143. 

3  Ibid.  Lv.  150-159 ;  v.  42,  etc. 


190  The  Belie/ions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

and  angel  of  death  in  one,  Apollo  is  always  on  the 
side  of  right,  always  true  to  Zeus,  and  not  much  in- 
ferior to  him  in  power.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  fanciful 
analogy  which  has  been  traced  between  him  and  the 
Second  Person  of  the  Christian  Trinity;1  but  the 
very  fact  that  such  an  analogy  can  be  suggested  is 
indicative  of  the  pure  and  lofty  character  of  the  god, 
which  equals  at  any  rate,  if  it  does  not  transcend, 
the  highest  ideal  of  divinity  that  has  hitherto  been 
elaborated  by  unassisted  human  wisdom. 

ARES. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  Ares  is  "the  imper- 
sonation of  a  passion."  That  combative  propensity, 
which  man  possesses  in  common  with  a  large  number 
of  animals,  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks,  not  only  as 
a  divine  thing,  but  as  a  thing  of  such  lofty  divinity 

iFriedriech  says:  "This  triad  of  Zeus,  Athen£,  and  Apollo 
bears  an  unmistakeable  analogy  to  the  Christian  Trinity  of 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost :  Zeus  answering  to  God  the  Father, 
Athene  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  Apollo  to  the  Son  of  God,  the 
Declarer  of  the  will  of  his  Heavenly  Father  "  ("  Die  Realien  in  der 
Iliade  und  Odyssee,"  part  iii.  pp.  635  and  689).  Mr.  Gladstone 
came  independently  to  the  same  conclusion,  and  says : — "In 
Apollo  are  represented  the  legendary  anticipations  of  a  person  to 
come,  in  whom  should  be  combined  all  the  great  offices  in  which 
God  the  Son  is  now  made  known  to  man,  as  the  Light  of  our 
paths,  the  Physician  of  our  diseases,  the  Judge  of  our  misdeeds, 
and  the  Conqueror  and  Disarmer,  but  not  yet  Abolisher,  of  death," 
("  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  132).  Professor  Max 
Miiller,  on  the  other  hand,  thinks  that  "it  seems  blasphemy  to 
consider  the  fables  of  the  heathen  world  as  corrupted  and  misinter- 
preted fragments  of  a  divine  revelation  once  granted  to  the  whole 
of  mankind"  ("Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  ii.  p.  13). 


Religion  of  the  Ancient   Greeks.  191 

that  its  representative  must  have  a  place  among  the 
deities  of  the  first  class  or  order.  The  propensity 
itself  Avas  viewed  as  common  to  man  with  the  gods, 
and  as  having  led  to  "  wars  in  heaven/7  wherein  all 
the  greater  deities  had  borne  their  part.  Now  that 
peace  was  established  in  the  .Olympian  abode,  it 
found  a  vent  on  earth,  and  caused  the  participation 
of  the  gods  in  the  wars  carried  on  among  mortals. 
Ares  was  made  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  the  king 
and  queen  of  heaven.  He  was  represented  as  tall, 
handsome,  and  active,  but  as  cruel,  lawless,  and 
greedy  of  blood.  The  finer  elements  of  the  warlike 
spirit  are  not  his.  He  is  a  divine  Ajax,1  rather  than 
a  divine  Achilles ;  and  the  position  which  he  occu- 
pies in  the  Olympian  circle  is  low.  Apollo  and 
Athene  are  both  entitled  to  give  Kim  their  orders ; 
and  Athene  scolds  him,  strikes  him  senseless,  and 
wounds  him  through  the  spear  of  Diomed.2  His 
worship  is  thought  to  have  been  derived  from 
Thrace,3  and  to  have  been  introduced  into  Greece 
only  a  little  before  the  time  of  Homer.4  It  was  at 
no  time  very  widely  spread,  or  much  affected  by  any 
Grecian  tribe  or  state,  the  conception  being  altogether 
too  coarse  to  attract  the  sympathies  of  a  refined 
people. 

1  Mr.  Gladstone  says,  "not  so  much  an  Ajax  as  a  Caliban" 
("  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  228)  ;  but  is  not  this 
too  harsh  a  view,  even  of  the  Homeric  conception  of  Ares  ? 

2  Horn.  "Iliad,"  v.  885-887;  xv.  110-142,  etc. 

3  Dollinger,  Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p.  88. 

4  Gladstone,  "Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  pp. 
229-231. 


192  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World, 


HEPHAESTUS. 

Hephaestus  is  the  god  of  fire,  and  especially  of  fire 
in  connection  with  smelting  and  metallurgy.  He 
dwells  in  Lemnos,  where  he  habitually  forges  thun- 
derbolts for  Zeus,  and  occasionally  produces  fabrics 
in  metal  of  elaborate  and  exquisite  construction. 
Among  the  most  marvellous  of  his  works  are  the 
automatic  tripods  of  Olympus  and  the  bronze  maidens, 
whom  he  has  formed  to  be  his  attendants  on  account 
of  his  lameness.  He  is  the  armourer  of  heaven,  and 
provides  the  gods  generally  with  the  weapons  which 
they  use  in  warfare.  The  peculiarity  of  his  lameness 
is  strange  and  abnormal,  since  the  Greeks  hate  de- 
formity, and  represent  their  deities  generally  as  pos- 
sessed of  perfect  physical  beauty.  It  has  been  ac- 
counted for  on  the  supposition  that  he  is  a  Grecised 
Phthah,1  introduced  from  Egypt,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly,2 and  that  his  deformity  is  a  modification  of 
Phthah's  presentment  as  a  pigmy  with  the  lower 
limbs  misshapen.  But  the  "features  common  to 
Hephaestus  with  Phthah  are  few;  the  name  of 
Hephaestus  is  probably  of  pure  Greek  etymology, 
connected  with  (pdoz  and  (patveo ;  and,  on  the  whole, 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  evidence  that  Hephaestus 
is  a  foreign  god  more  than  any  other.  Rather,  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  many  sidedness  of  the  Greeks, 

1  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  in  Rawlinson's  "  Herodotus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  139, 
note  (3rd  edition). 

'2  Mr.  Gladstone  regards  him  as  introduced  from  Phoenicia 
("  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  255). 


Religion  of  the  Ancient   Greeks.  193 

and  consequent  upon  the  anthropomorphism  which 
makes  the  Olympic  community  a  reflection  of  earthly 
things,  that  there  should  be  even  in  this  august  con- 
clave something  provocative  of  laughter,  a  discord 
to  break  the  monotony  of  the  harmony,  an  element 
of  grotesqueness  and  monstrosity.  Hephaestus  in 
the  Olympic  halls  is  like  the  jester  at  the  court  of  a 
mediaeval  monarch,  a  something  to  lighten  the  se- 
riousness of  existence,  to  provoke  occasionally  a  burst 
of  that  "  inextinguishable  laughter,"  without  which 
life  in  so  sublime  an  atmosphere  would  be  intolerable. 
The  marriage  of  Hephaestus  to  Aphrodite  is  con- 
ceived in  the  same  spirit.  There  was  a  keen  sense 
of  humour  in  the  countrymen  of  Aristophanes ;  and 
the  combination  of  the  clumsy,  lame,  and  begrimed 
smith  with  the  Queen  of  Beauty  and  Love  pleased 
their  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  and  was  the  fertile  source 
of  many  an  amusing  legend.  "  The  Lay  of  the  Net," 
wherewith  Demodocus  entertains  both  gods  and  men,1 
is  a  sufficient  specimen  of  this  class  of  lively  myth, 
and  shows  that  the  comic  features  of  ill-assorted  mar- 
riage, on  which  modern  playwrights  have  traded  so 
freely,  were  fully  appreciated  by  the  Greeks,  and 
were  supposed  well-suited  to  provoke  the  gods  to 
merriment.  The  modern  moralist  will  regret  this 
unworthy  representation  of  divine  beings ; 2  but  it  is 
quite  in  accord  with  the  general  character  of  the 
Greek  religion,  which  reflected  back  upon  deity  all 
that  was  weak,  as  well  as  all  that  was  strong,  in  man. 

iHom.  "Odyss."  viii.  266-366. 

2  "Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"-  vol.  ii.  pp.  461-463. 

13 


194  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 


HERMES. 


Hermes  is  the  impersonation  of  commercial  deal- 
ings, and  hence  a  god  who  gives  wealth  and  increase, 
a  god  of  inventive  power,  and  a  god  of  tricks  and 
thievery.  He  is  "  the  Olympian  man  of  business," 1 
and  therefore  employed  in  embassies  and  commis- 
sions, and  even  sometimes  in  the  simple  carrying  of 
messages.  As  dcbrcop  edwv,2  "  the  giver  of  comforts," . 
he  secures  his  votaries  all  manner  of  worldly  pros- 
perity. He  is  industrious  and  inventive,  constructs 
the  seven-stringed  lyre  before  he  is*  a  day  old,3  after- 
wards invents  the  pan's-pipes,  and  ultimately  becomes 
a  god  of  wisdom  and  learning  generally.  His 
thicvishness  must  be  taken  to  show  that  commercial 
fraud  is  pretty  well  as  ancient  as  commerce  itself, 
and  that  "  the  good  old  times "  were  not,  as  some- 
times represented,  an  age  of  innocence.  It  has  been 
said  that  he  is  more  human  than  any  other  Olympian 
god  ;  and  that  "  he  represents,  so  to  speak,  the 
utilitarian  side  of  the  human  mind/'4  being  active, 
energetic,  fruitful  in  resource,  a  keen  bargainer,  a 
bold  story-teller,  and  a  clever  thief.  His  admission 
into  the  number  of  the  Olympians  is  the  strongest 
possible  indication  of  the  inferiority  of  the  moral 
standard  among  the  Greeks.  The  special  regard  paid 
to  him  by  the  Athenians  is,  however,  perhaps  the 

1  Dollinger,  "Jew  and  Gentile,  vol.  i.  p.  74. 

2  Horn.  "  Odyss.  viii.  335.     Compare  "  Iliad,"  xiv.  490. 

3  Horn.  "Hym.  Merc."  1.  16. 

4  "  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  242. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  195 

mere  consequence  of  their  addiction  to  the  pursuits 
of  commerce. 

Hermes  is  commonly  represented  as  a  youth  just 
attaining  to  manhood.  The  wings  which  adorn  his 
head  and  ankles  indicate  the  celerity  of  his  move- 
ments. His  caduceus  is  perhaps  the  golden  rod  of 
wealth  given  to  him  by  Apollo  in  exchange  for  the 
lyre.  It  represents  also  the  staff  commonly  borne 
by  heralds,  and  in  this  point  of  view  had  white 
ribands  attached  to  it,  which  in  later  times  became 
serpents.  Sometimes  he  holds  a  purse  in  his  hand, 
to  mark  his  power  of  bestowing  riches. 

The  six  female  Olympic  deities — Hera,  Athene, 
Artemis,  Aphrodite,  Hestia,  and  Demeter — have  now 
to  be  considered. 

HERA. 

The  anthropomorphism  which  was  so  main  an 
element  in  the  Greek  religion  made  it  requisite  that 
motherhood,  as  well  as  fatherhood,  should  be  en- 
throned in  the  Olympic  sphere,  that  Zeus  should 
have  his  consort,  heaven  its  queen,  and  women  their 
representative  in  the  highest  celestial  position.  Hera 
was,  perhaps,  originally  Era,  "  the  Earth  f 1  but  this 
idea  was  soon  lost  sight  of,  and  in  Greek  mythology, 
from  first  to  last,  she  is  quite  other  than  the  principle 
of  mundane  fecundity,  quite  a  different  being  from 
the  oriental  earth-goddess,  called  indifferently  Cybele, 

1  See  Mr.  Gladstone's  "Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii. 
p.  1 90.  Others  suggest  a  connection  with  heros,  herus,  hera,  and 
so  with  the  German  herr,  and  our  sir. 


196  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

DindymenS,  Magna  Mater,  Rhea,  Beltis,  Mylitta,  etc. 
Hera  is,  primarily,  the  wife  of  Zeus,  the  queen  of 
the  Olympic  court,  the  mistress  of  heaven.  She  is 
"  a  reflected  image  of  Zeus," l  and  exercises  all  her 
husband's  prerogatives,  thunders,  shakes  Olympus, 
makes  Iris  her  messenger,  gives  her  orders  to  the 
Winds  and  the  Sun,  confers  valour,  and  the  like. 
As  the  personification  of  maternity,  she  presides  over 
child-birth  ;  and  the  Eileithyise,  her  daughters,  act  as 
her  ministers.  She  does  not  present  to  us  an  elevated 
idea  of  female  perfection,  since,  despite  her  exalted 
rank,  she  is  subject  to  numerous  feminine  infirmities. 
Mr.  Grote  notes  that  she  is  "proud,  jealous,  and 
bitter."  2  Mr.  Gladstone  observes  that  she  is  pas- 
sionate, wanting  in  moral  elevation,  cruel,  vindictive, 
and  unscrupulous.3  Her  mythological  presentation 
was  certainly  not  of  a  nature  to  improve  the  character 
of  those  women  who  might  take  her  for  their  model ; 
since,  although  she  was  possessed  of  certain  great 
qualities,  passion,  fervour,  strong  aifection,  self-com- 
mand, courage,  acuteness,  yet  she  was,  on  the  whole, 
wanting  in  the  main  elements  of  female  excellence, 
gentleness,  softness,  tenderness,  patience,  submission 
to  wrong,  self  renunciation,  reticence.  She  was  a 
proud,  grand,  haughty,  powerful  queen  ;  not  a  kind, 
helpful,  persuasive,  loving  woman.  The  mythology 
of  Greece  is  in  few  points  less  satisfactory  than  in  the 

i  ''Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  194. 

2  lf  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  50. 

3  "Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  190-196. 


Religion. of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  197 

type  of  female   character  which  it  exhibits  at  the 
head  of  its  pantheon. 

ATHENE. 

If  Hera  is  below  the  level  of  female  excellence 
which  we  might  have  expected  refined  heathens  to 
have  represented  in  a  chief  goddess,  Athene  is  above 
the  level.  She  has  a  character  which  is  without  a 
flaw.  Originally,  as  it  would  seem,  a  conscious  im- 
personation ol  the  divine  wisdom,  and  therefore 
fabled  to  have  sprung  full-grown  from  the  head  of 
Zeus,  she  became  a  distinct  and  substantive  deity  at 
a  very  early  date,  and  was  recognised  as  the  "  god- 
dess of  wisdom,  war,  polity,  and  industrial  art."1 
Homer  places  her,  together  with  Zeus  and  Apollo, 
on  a  higher  platform  of  divinity  than  the  other  dei- 
ties,2 and  makes  her  even  oppose  Zeus  when  he  is  in 
the  wrong,  thwart  him,  and  vindicate  right  and  truth 
in  his  despite.3  It  has  been  said  that  she  is  "with- 
out feminine  sympathies — the  type  of  composed,  ma- 
jestic, and  unrelenting  force ; " 4  and  this  is  so  far 
true  that  she  has  certainly  little  softness,  absolutely 
no  weakness,  and  not  many  distinctly  feminine 
characteristics.  But  she  was  recognised,  like  her 
Egyptian  counterpart,  Neith,  as  the  goddess  of  good 
housewifery,  "  patronising  handicraft,  and  expert  at 

1  "  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol,  ii.  p.  59. 

2  Horn.  "Iliad,"  ii.  371;  iv.  288;  vii.  132,  etc.;  "  Odyss." 
iv.  341 ;  xvii.  132,  etc. 

3  "Iliad,"  viii.  30-40, 

4Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p-  47. 


198  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

the  loom  and  spindle," 1  no  less  than  as  the  wise  di- 
rectress of  statesmen  and  warriors.  Undoubtedly, 
the  atmosphere  in  which  she  removed  was  too  cold, 
calm,  and  clear  for  her  ever  to  have  attached  to  her- 
self any  very  large  share  of  human  sympathy ;  but 
she  exercised  an  elevating  influence  on  the  nobler 
spirits  of  both  sexes,  as  combining  the  three  attributes 
of  purity,  strength,  and  wisdom  in  the  highest  pos- 
sible degree,  and  so  furnishing  at  once  a  model  for 
imitation,  and  a  support  and  stay  for  feeble  souls  in 
the  spirit  world,  where  they  had  otherwise  little  on 
which  they  could  place  any  firm  reliance.  The 
universally-received  myth  of  Mentor  and  Telema- 
chus  acted  as  a  strong  reinforcement  to  the  power  of 
conscience,  which  the  young  Greek  felt  might  be  the 
voice  of  Athene  speaking  within  him,  advising  him  for 
his  true  good,  and  pointing  out  to  him  the  path  of  hon- 
our and  duty.  Athene's  special  connection  with  Athens 
and  Attica  added  much  to  her  importance  in  the 
Greek  religious  system,  since  it  brought  the  best 
minds  and  most  generous  natures  of  Hellas  peculiar- 
ly under  the  influence  of  a  thoroughly  high  and 
noble  religious  conception. 

ARTEMIS. 

Artemis  is  altogether  a  shadowy  divinity.  She 
is  a  "pale  reflection  of  her  brother,"2  Phoebus 
Apollo,  whose  attributes  she  reproduces  in  a  subdued 
form,  being,  like  him,  majestic,  pure,  chaste,  a  minis- 

1  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  p.  47. 

2  "Isomer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  143. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  199 

ter  of  death,  and  a  dexterous  archer.  Nothing  is 
peculiar  to  her  except  her  presidency  over  hunting, 
which  determined  her  general  presentation  to  the  eye 
by  the  Greek  artists.  She  embodied  and  personified 
that  passion  for  the  chase  which  was  common  to  the 
Hellenes  with  most  energetic  races.  It  was  supposed 
that  she  dwelt  mainly  upon  earth,  haunting  the 
forests  and  the  mountains,  dressed  as  a  huntress,  and 
accompanied  by  her  favorite  hounds.  Her  connec- 
tion with  the  moon  was  an  after-thought  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  as  was  that  of  Apollo  with  the 
s,un.  It  arose  mainly  from  the  fact  that  hunters,  to 
be  successful,  had  to  commence  their  operations  by 
night,  and  needed  the  light  of  the  moon  in  order  to 
make  their  arrangements. 

The  Artemis  of  Ephesus  was  the  embodiment  of 
a  different  idea.1  She  took  the  place  of  the  great 
Asiatic  Nature-goddess — Cybele,  Rhea,  Magna  Ma- 
ter, Beltis,  Mylitta — and  had  nothing  in  common 
with  the  Artemis  of  Hellas  proper  but  the  name. 
"Her  image,  shaped  like  a  mummy,  was  of  black 
wood ;  the  upper  part  of  the  body  was  ornamented 
with  the  breasts  of  animals,  the  lower  with  figures  of 
them." 2  She  was  a  mere  impersonation  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  fecundity  in  nature — "a  Pantheistic  deity, 
with  more  of  an  Asiatic  than  Hellenic  character."3 
aphrodit£. 

Aphrodite  is  the  antithesis,  and  in  some  sort  the 
complement,  of  Athene.    She  is  the  impersonation  of 

1  Grote,  "History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  48. 

Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p.  86.         3  Ibid. 


200  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

all  that  is  soft  and  weak  and  erring  in  female  nature, 
as  Athene  is  of  all  that  is  high  and  pure  and  strong. 
Goddess  of  beauty  and  love,  not,  however,  of  love  in 
its  more  elevated  form,  but  rather  of  sensual  desire, 
she  was  received  by  the  Greeks  probably  from  an 
Asiatic  source,  but  so  transmuted  and  Hellenised  as 
to  have  become,  when  we  first  meet  with  her,  a  com- 
pletely national  divinity.1  Hellenic  in  the  whole 
character  of  her  beauty,  she  is  well  described  by  a 
living  English  poet2  in  a  passage  which  is  eminently 
classical : — 

"  Idalian  Aphrodite  beautiful, 

Fresh  as  the  foam,  new  bathed  in  Paphian  wells, 
With  rosy  slender  fingers  backward  drew 
From  her  warm  brow  and  bosom  her  deep  hair 
Ambrosial,  golden  round  her  lucid  throat 
And  shoulder:  from  the  violets  her  light  foot 
Shone  rosy  white,  and  o'er  her  rounded  form, 
Between  the  shadows  of  the  vine-branches, 
Floated  the  golden  sunlight  as  she  moved." 

Nothing  so  lovely  in  form  and  colour  and  texture 
and  combination  of  rare  charms,  graced  the  splendid 
chambers  of  the  Olympian  court — nothing  so  ravish- 
ing had  ever  presented  itself  to  the  vision  of  painter 
or  poet.  But  the  beauty  Avas  altogether  physical, 
sensuous,  divorced  alike  from   moral  goodness  and 

1  Mr.  Gladstone  takes  a  different  view.  He  regards  the 
Aphrodite  of  Homer  as  scarcely  a  Greek  divinity  ("  Homer  and 
the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  244,  245).  But  to  me  it  seems 
that,  even  in  Homer,  her  character  is  as  thoroughly  Greek  as 
her  name. 

2  See  Tennyson's  "  CEnone,"  11.  170-178. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  201 

mental  power.  Silly  and  childish,  easily  tricked  and 
imposed  upon,  Aphrodite  is  mentally  contemptible, 
while  morally  she  is  odious.  Tyrannical  over  the 
weak,  cowardly  before  the  strong,  frail  herself,  and 
the  persistent  stirrer  up  of  frailty  in  others,  lazy,  de- 
ceitful, treacherous,  selfish,  shrinking  from  the  least 
touch  of  pain,  she  repels  the  moral  sentiment  with  a 
force  almost  equal  to  that  wherewith  she  attracts  the 
lower  animal  nature.  Hence  the  Greek  cannot  speak 
of  her  without  the  most  violent  conflict  of  feeling. 
He  is  drawn  to  her,  but  he  detests  her ;  he  is  fas- 
cinated, yet  revolted  ;  he  admires,  yet  he  despises  and 
condemns ;  and  his  condemnation,  on  the  whole,  out- 
weighs his  admiration.     He  calls  her 

"  A  goddess  verily  of  many  names — 
Not  Cypris  only,  but  dark  Hades,  too, 
And  Force  resistless,  and  mad,  frantic  Rage, 
And  sheer  untempered  Craving,  and  shrill  Grief."1 

He  allows,  but  he  rebels  against  her  power  over 
him;  he  protests  even  when  he  surrenders  himself; 
and  hence,  on  the  whole,  Aphrodite  exercises  a  less 
corrupting  influence  in  Greece  than  might  have  been 
anticipated.  That  the  pantheon  should  contain  a 
goddess  of  the  kind  was  of  course  to  some  extent 
debasing.  Bad  men  could  justify  themselves  by  the 
divine  example,  and  plead  power lessness  to  resist  a 
divine  impulse.  But  their  conscience  was  not  satis- 
fied ;  they  felt  they  sinned  against  their  higher 
nature ;  and  thus,  after  all,  the  moral  standard  was 

i  Sophocl.  Fragm.  xxiii.  (ed.  Brunck). 


202  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

not  very  seriously  affected  by  the  existence  of  the 
Cyprian  goddess  among  the  Olympic  deities. 

HESTIA. 

Hestia  is  still  more  shadowy  than  Artemis.  She 
is,  in  part,  the  femine  counterpart  of  Hephaestus,  the 
goddess  of  fire ;  but  she  is  principally  the  impersona- 
tion of  the  sacred  character  of  each  hearth  aud  home, 
whether  domestic,  tribal,  or  national.  Hestia  pre- 
sided over  the  private  hearths  and  homesteads  of  all 
Greeks,  over  the  Prytaneia  of  cities,  and  over  the 
altars  kept  ablaze  in  the  temples  which  were  centres 
of  confederacies.  She  invested  them  with  a  sacred 
character,  watched  over  them,  protected  them.  Her 
personality  was  but  slightly  developed.  Still  she 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  possessing,  to  a  re- 
markable extent,  the  qualities  of  holiness  and  purity  ; 
and  thus  to  have  practically  maintained  in  Greek 
domestic  life  a  high  and  pure  standard,  such  as  has 
scarcely  been  much  exceeded  among  Christians.  She 
was  fabled  to  have  vowed  perpetual  virginity ;  and  it 
is  clear  that,  together  with  Athene  and  Artemis,  she 
upheld  among  the  Greeks  the  idea  of  virginal  purity 
as  a  transcendental  phase  of  life,  a  moral  perfection 
whereto  the  best  and  purest  might  not  only  aspire, 
but  attain,  as  the  result  of  earnest  endeavour. 

DEMETER. 

Demeter,  the  "Earth-Mother,"  was  an  original 
Greek  conception,  corresponding  to  one  common 
among  the  Oriental  nations,  the  conception  personi- 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  203 

fied  by  Maut  in  Egypt,  Beltis  or  Mylitta  in  Babylon, 
Cybele"  in  Phrygia,  etc.  The  earth  on  which  man 
lives,  and  from  which  he  derives  the  food  that  sus- 
tains him,  was  viewed  as  a  kind  and  bountiful  parent 
— the  nurse,  the  feeder,  the  supporter,  the  sustainer 
of  mankind.  Personified  as  a  goddess,  she  demanded 
the  worship  and  gratitude  of  all,  and  was  hence  a 
universal  deity,  though  specially  honoured  in  certain 
places.  In  the  Greek  religion  Demeter  was  closely 
connected  with  agriculture,  since  the  earth  in  Greece 
did  not  support  men  without  toil.  She  made  the 
Greeks  acquainted  with  the  growing  of  cereals,  the 
operations  of  tillage,  and  bread-making.  Moreover, 
as  agriculture  was  "  the  foundation  of  all  social  and 
political  ordinances,  and  inseparably  connected  with 
the  introduction  of  peaceable  and  orderly  ways  of 
life,  Demeter,  under  her  title  of  Thesmophoros,  was 
the  ennobler  of  mankind,  the  founder  of  civilisation 
and  lawgiving."  She  was  thus  more  in  Greece  than 
she  was  in  Asia.  Her  position  in  the  greatest  of  the 
mysteries — the  Eleusinian — was  probably  owing  to 
this  double  function,  this  combination  of  a  Nature- 
goddess  with  a  deity  of  law  and  order,  the  power 
that  led  man  on  from  the  simple  nomadic  condition 
to  all  the  refinements  and  complications  of  advanced 
political  life. 

u These  were  the  prime  in  order  and  in  might; 
The  rest  were  long  to  tell,  though  far  renown'd, 
Th'  Ionian  gods,  of  Javan's  issue  held 
Gods,  yet  confess' d  later  than  heav'n  and  earth, 
Their  boasted  parents  :  Titan,  Heav'n' s  first-born, 
With  his  enormous  brood,  and  birthright  seiz'd 


204  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

By  younger  Saturn  :  he  from  mightier  Jove, 

His  own  and  Reah's  son,  like  measure  found  : 

So  Jove  usurping  reign' d  :  these  first  in  Crete 

And  Ida  known ;  thence  on  the  snowy  top 

Of  cold  Olympus  rul'd  the  middle  air, 

Their  highest  heav'n;  or  on  the  Delphian  cliff, 

Or  in  Dodona,  and  through  all  the  bounds 

Of  Doric  land  ;   or  who  with  Saturn  old 

Fled  over  Adria  to  th'  Hesperian  fields, 

And  o'er  the  Celtic  roam'd  the  utmost  isles. 

*  *  *  *  -*  * 

Nor  had  they  yet  among  the  sons  of  Eve 

Got  them  new  names  ;  till  wand' ring  o'er  the  earth, 

Through  God's  high  suff' ranee  for  the  trial  of  man, 

By  falsities  and  lies  the  greatest  part 

Of  mankind  they  corrupted  to  forsake 

God  their  Creator,  and  th'  invisible 

Glory  of  Him  that  made  them  to  transform 

Oft  to  the  image  of  a  brute,  adorn' d 

"With  gay  religions  full  of  pomp  and  gold, 

And  devils  to  adore  for  deities  : 

Then  they  were  known  to  men  by  various  names, 

And  various  idols  through  the  heathen  world." — 

Among  the  deities  external  to  the  Olympic  circle, 
the  most  important  were  Dionysus,  Leto,  Persephone, 
and  Hades  or  Aidoneus.  Dionysus  is  generally  ad- 
mitted to  have  been  derived  from  an  Oriental  source. 
The  word  probably  meant  originally  "  the  judge  of 
men,"  L  and  referred  to  a  special  function  of  the  god, 
who  was  thought  to  pass  sentence  on  the  departed 
when  they  reached  the  other  world. 

Essentially,  however,  Dionysus  was  the  god  of 
inebriety,   the   deification   of  drunkenness,  as  Ares 

1  See  the  ''  Transactions,  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology," 
vol.  ii.  pp.  33,  34. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  205 

was  of  violence,  and  Aphrodite   of  sensual  desire. 
He  was  viewed  as  the  creator  of  the  vine,  or  at  any 
rate  as  its  introducer  into  Greece;  the  teacher  of  its 
culture,  and  the  discoverer  of  the  exhilarating  pro- 
perties of  its  fruit.     The  worship  of  Dionysus  was 
effected  by  taking  part  in  his  orgies,  and  these  were 
of  a  furious  and  ecstatic  character,  accompanied  with 
exciting  music,  with  wild  dances,  with  shrieks  and 
cries,  and  sometimes  with  bloodshed.     Both  men  and 
women  joined  in  the  Dionysiac  rites,  the  women  out- 
doing   the    men    in    the    violence  of  their    frenzy. 
"Crowds  of  females,  clothed  with  fawn-skins,  and 
bearing  the  sacred  thyrsus,  flocked  to  the  solitudes  of 
Parnassus  or  Cithseron  or  Taygetus,  during  the  con- 
secrated triennial  period,  passed  the  night  there  with 
torches,  and  abandoned  themselves  to  demonstrations 
of  frantic  excitement,  with   dancing  and  clamorous 
invocation  of  the  god.     The  men  yielded  to  a  simi- 
lar impulse  by  noisy  revels  in  the  streets,  sounding 
the  cymbals  and  tambourine,  and  carrying  the  image 
of  the  god  in  procession."  x     Every  sort  of  license 
and  excess  was  regarded  as  lawful  on  these  occasions, 
and  the  worship  of  the  deity  was  incomplete  unless 
the  votary  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  intoxication. 
Dionysiac  festivals  were  fortunately  not  of  frequent 
recurrence,  and  were  not  everywhere  celebrated  in 
the  same  way.     At  Athens  women  took  no  part  in 
the  Dionysia ;  and  with  men  intellectual  contests,  and 
the  witnessing  of  them,  held  the  place  of  the  rude 
revels  elsewhere  too  common.     Still  the  influence  of 
i  Grote,  "  History  of  Greece,"  vol.  i.  p.  26. 


206  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

Dionysiac  worship  on  Greece  generally  must  be  re- 
garded as  excessively  corrupting,  and  Dionysus  must 
be  viewed  as,  next  to  Aphrodite,  the  most  objection- 
able of  the  Greek  divinities. 

Leto,  or  Latona,  as  the  Romans  called  her,  when 
they  adopted  her  into  their  pantheon,  was,  on  the  con- 
trary, one  of  the  purer  and  more  elevating  influences. 
She  is  wife  of  Zeus  by  a  title  quite  as  good  as  that 
of  Hera,1  and  is  a  model  of  motherly  love  and  wifely 
purity.  Separate  and  peculiar  function  she  has  none, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  her  introduction 
among  the  Olympians.  Perhaps  she  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  ideal  womanhood.  Silent,  unobtrusive, 
always  subordinating  herself  to  her  children,  majes- 
tic, chaste,  kindly,  ready  to  help  and  tend,  she  is  in 
Olympus  what  the  Greek  wished  his  wife  to  be  in  his 
own  home,  her  very  shadowiness  according  with  the 
Greek  notion  of  womanly  perfection.2  Mr.  Glad- 
stone suggests  that  she  is  a  traditional  deity,  repre- 
senting the  woman  through  whom  man's  redemption 
was  to  come;3  but  there  scarcely  seems  sufficient 
foundation  for  this  view,  which  is  not  supported  by 
any  analogies  in  the  mythologies  of  other  nations. 

Persephone,  the  Roman  Proserpine,  was  the  queen 
of  the  dead ;  far  more  than  her  shadowy  husband, 
Hades,  the  real  ruler  of  the  infernal  realm.     She 

1  Hesiod  says  that  she  became  the  wife  of  Zeus  before  Hera 
("Theogony,"  11.  918-221). 

2  Compare  the  line  of  Sophocles  — 

"  0  woman,  silence  is  the  woman's  crown." 

(Ajax,  1.  293.) 

3  "  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,"  vol.  ii.  p.  153. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  207 

was  represented  as  severely  pure  and  chaste,  even 
having  become  a  wife  against  her  will,  and  as  awful 
and  terrible,  but  not  cruel.  She  occupied  no  very 
important  post  in  the  religion,  since  her  sphere  was 
wholly  the  nether  world,  which  only  very  slightly 
engraved  the  attention  of  the  Hellenes.  Hades,  or 
Aidoneus,  had  a  high  rank,  as  the  brother  of  Zeus, 
and  in  some  sort  his  co-equal ;  but  he  was  as  shad- 
owy as  the  realm  over  which  he  presided,  and  to 
most  Greeks  was  simply  magni  nominis  umbra — 
"the  shadow  of  a  great  name,"  which  they  must 
reverence  when  they  heard  it,  but  not  a  deity  who  to 
any  extent  occupied  their  thoughts,  or  received  their 
worship.1 

It  Avould  be  easy  to  occupy  many  more  pages  with 
the  Greek  minor  deities,  but  our  limits  compel  us  to 
refrain,  and  to  turn  at  this  point  from  the  objects  to 
the  character  of  the  worship,  and  to  the  real  practical 
influence  of  their  religion  upon  the  Greek  race. 

In  the  main,  the  Greek  worship  was  of  a  joyous, 
pleasant,  and  lightsome  kind.  The  typical  Greek 
was  devoid  of  any  deep  sense  of  sin — thought  well 
of  himself — did  not  think  very  highly  of  the  gods, 
and  considered  that,  so  long  as  he  kept  free  from 
grave  and  heinous  offences,  either  against  the  moral 
law  or  against  the  amour-propre  of  the  deities,  he 
had  little  to  fear,  while  he  had  much  to  hope,  from 

Compare  Dollinger,  ''Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p.  93:  "The 
people  did  not  trouble  themselves  much  about  Hades,  and  they 
saw  no  altars  dedicated  to  him.  There  was  one  image  of  him  at 
Athens,  but  he  had  hardly  anywhere  a  regular  worship." 


208  Tlie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

them.  He  prayed  and  offered  sacrifice,  not  so  much 
in  the  way  of  expiation,  or  to  deprecate  God's  wrath, 
as  in  the  way  of  natural  piety,  to  ask  for  blessings 
and  to  acknowledge  them.  He  made  vows  to  the 
[gods  in  sickness,  danger,  or  difficulty,  and  was  care- 
ful to  perform  his  vow  on  escape  or  recovery.  His 
house  was  full  of  shrines,  on  which  he  continually 
laid  small  offerings,  to  secure  the  favour  and  protec- 
tion of  his  special  patron  deities.  Plato  says  that  he 
prayed  every  morning  and  evening,  and  also  con- 
cluded every  set  meal  with  a  prayer  or  hymn.  But 
these  devotions  seem  not  to  have  been  very  earnest 
or  deep,  and  were  commonly  hurried  through  in  a 
perfunctory  manner. 

Practically,  the  religious  worship  of  the  Greeks 
consisted  mainly  in  attendance  on  festivals  which 
might  be  Pan-Hellenic,  political,  tribal,  or  peculiar 
to  a  guild  or  a  phratria.  Each  year  brought  round 
either  one  or  two  of  the  great  panegyries — the  festi- 
vals of  the  entire  Greek  race  at  Olympia  and  Delphi, 
at  Nemea  and  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  There  were 
two  great  Ionic  festivals  annually,  one  at  Delos,  and 
the  other  at  the  Panionium  near  Mycale.  Each  state 
and  city  throughout  Greece  had  its  own  special 
festivals,  Dionysia,  Eleusinia,  Panathensea,  Carneia, 
Hyakinthia,  Apaturia,  etc.  Most  of  these  were 
annual,  and  some  lasted  several  days.  A  Greek  had 
no  "  Sunday  " — no  sacred  day  recurring  at  set  inter- 
vals, on  which  his  thoughts  were  bound  to  be 
directed  to  religion ;  but  so  long  a  time  as  a  week 
scarcely  ever  passed  without  his  calendar  calling  him 


Religion  of  the  Ancient   Greeks.  209 

to  some  sacred  observance  or  other,  some  feast  or 
ceremony,  in  honour  of  some  god  or  goddess,  or  in 
commemoration  of  some  event  important  in  the 
history  of  mankind,1  or  in  that  of  his  race,  or  of  his 
city.  And  these  festivals  were  highly  attractive  to 
him.  Generally  they  were  joyful  occasions  from 
first  to  last,  celebrated  with  music,  and  processions, 
with  gymnastic  or  orchestral  competitions,  or  with 
theatrical  contests.  Ordinarily  they  include  sacrifice, 
and  feasting  upon  the  victims  sacrificed.  Even  when 
they  were  professedly  of  a  mournful  character,  like 
the  Spartan  Hyakinthia,  the  opening  days  of  which 
were  days  of  sadness  and  of  gloom,  they  commonly 
concluded  with  a  more  genial  time — a  time  of  ban- 
queting and  dancing.  Accordingly,  the  Greek  looked 
forward  to  his  holy  days  as  true  holidays,  and  was 
pleased  to  combine  duty  with  pleasure  by  taking  his 
place  in  the  procession,  or  the  temple,  or  the  theatre, 
to  which  inclination  and  religion  alike  called  him. 
Thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  flocked  to  each  of 
the  great  Pan-Hellenic  gatherings,  delighting  in  the 
splendour  and  excitement  of  the  scene,  in  the  gay 
dresses,  the  magnificent  equipages,  the  races,  the 
games,  the  choric,  and  other  contests.  "  These  festi- 
vals," as  has  been  well  observed,2  "  were  considered 
as  the  very  cream  of  the  Greek  life,  their  periodical 
recurrence  being  expected  with  eagerness  and  greeted 

1  E.  g.,  the  Hydrophoria,  kept  in  commemoration  of  those  who 
perished  in  the  Flood  of  Deucalion,  the  Greek  representation  of 
the  Noachical  Deluge. 

2  Dollinger,  "Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p.  238. 

14 


210  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

with  joy."  Similarly,  though  to  a  minor  extent, 
each  national  or  even  tribal  gathering  was  an  occa- 
sion of  enjoyment ;  cheerfulness,  hilarity,  sometimes 
an  excessive  exhilaration,  prevailed ;  and  the  religion 
of  the  Greeks,  in  these  its  most  striking  and  obvious 
manifestations,  was  altogether  bright,  festive,  and 
pleasurable. 

But j  just  as  sunshine  cannot  exist  without  shadow, 
so  even  the  Greek  religion,  bright  as  it  was,  had  its 
dark  side.  Calamities  befel  nations,  families,  or  in- 
dividuals, and  were  attributed  to  an  offended  god  or 
a  cruel  fury.  A  sense  of  guilt  occasionally  visited 
those  who  had  committed  great  and  flagrant  crimes, 
as  perjury,  blasphemy,  robbery  of  temples,  incest, 
violation  of  the  right  of  asylum,  treachery  toward  a 
guest-friend,  and  the  like.  A  load  under  these  cir- 
cumstances lay  upon  the  conscience ;  all  the  horrors 
of  remorse  were  felt ;  avenging  fiends  were  believed 
to  haunt  and  torture  the  guilty  one,  who  sometimes 
earnestly  sought  relief  for  a  term  of  years,  and 
sought  in  vain.  There  were,  indeed,  rites  of  expia- 
tion appropriate  to  different  occasions;  most  sins 
could  be  atoned  for  in  some  manner  or  other ;  but 
the  process  was  generally  long  and  painful ; l  and 
there  were  cases  where  the  persistent  anger  of  the 
fierce  Erinyes  could  not  in  any  way  be  appeased. 
When  a  nation  had  sinned,  human  sacrifices  were  not 
unfrequently  prescribed  as  the  only  possible  propitia- 

i  See  the  "  Eumenides  "  of  JEschylus,  where  Orestes,  however, 
is  at  last  purged  of  his  guilt. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.  211 

tion ; l  if  the  case  were  that  of  an  individual,  various 
modes  of  purification  were  adopted,  ablutions,  fast- 
ings, sacrifices,  and  the  like.  According  to  Plato, 
however,  the  number  of  those  who  had  any  deep 
sense  of  their  guilt  was  few :  most  men,  whatever 
crimes  they  committed,  found  among  the  gods  ex- 
amples of  similar  acts,2  and  thought  no  great  blame 
would  attach  to  them  for  their  misconduct.  At  the 
worst,  if  the  gods  were  angered  by  their  behaviour, 
a  few  offerings  would  satisfy  them,  and  set  things 
straight,3  leaving  the  offenders  free  to  repeat  their 
crimes,  and  so  to  grow  more  and  more  hardened  in 
iniquity. 

At  the  position  which  the  "  mysteries "  occupied 
in  the  Greek  religion  it  is  impossible  for  us,  in  this 
slight  sketch,  to  do  more  than  glance.  The  mys- 
teries were  certain  secret  rites  practised  by  voluntary 
associations  of  individuals,  who  pledged  themselves 
not  to  reveal  to  the  uninitiated  anything  which  they 
saw  or  heard  at  the  secret  meetings.  They  were 
usually  connected  with  the  worship  of  some  particu- 
lar god,  and  consisted  mainly  in  symbolical  repre- 
sentations of  the  adventures  and  circumstances  con- 
nected with  the  god  in  the  mythology.  They  con- 
tained nothing  that  was  contradictory  to  the  popular 
religion,  and  little  that  was  explanatory  of  it.  The 
various  mysteries  had  each  its  own  apparatus  of 

1  Even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Solon,  Epimenides  prescribed  a 
human  sacrifice  at  Athens. 

2  Plato,  "Republic,"  ii.  §  17. 

3  Ibid.  \  7. 


212  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

symbols  and  formularies,  by  which  the  mystce  knew 
each  other,  as  freemasons  do ;  but  they  only  vaguely 
hinted  at  any  theological  dogmas  or  opinions.  The 
Greek  greatly  aifected  these  secret  rites ;  and  it  is  said 
that  but  few  Greeks  were  not  initiated  in  some  mys- 
tery or  other.1  "  Their  attraction  lay  in  their  veil 
of  secrecy,  transparent  though  it  was,  in  the  variety 
of  feelings  brought  into  play  by  lively  dramatic 
representations,  in  the  rapid  transition  from  anxiety 
and  suspense  to  serenity  and  joy,  the  combination  of 
all  arts  and  artistic  enjoyments,  of  music  and  song, 
the  mimic  dance,  the  brilliant  lighting-up,  and  effec- 
tive decoration." 2  It  can  scarcely,  however,  be  said 
that  the  mysteries  exercised  any  salutary  or  elevating 
influence  on  the  Greeks  generally.  The  moral  con- 
duct of  the  initiated  was  no  better  than  that  of 
others ;  and  Plato  thought  that  participation  in  the 
Eleusinia  served  only  to  strengthen  and  make  a  man 
secure  in  unrighteousness.3 

1  Dollinger,  "Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p   193. 

2  Ibid.  p.  196. 

3  "Republic,"  ii.  \  6  (quoted  by  Dollinger,  p.  200). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RELIGION   OF   THE   ANCIENT   ROMANS. 

"Sua  cuique  religio  civitati,  nostra  nobis." 

Cicero,  Pro  Flacc.  28. 

TIME  was,  and  not  a  very  distant  time,  when  it 
was  regularly  inculcated  on  the  youthful  mind 
in  our  public  schools  and  other  great  educational 
establishments,  that  one  and  the  same  religious  sys- 
tem prevailed  alike  in  Italy  and  Greece,  among  the 
Romans  and  the  Hellenes ;  two  branches,  as  it  was 
thought,  of  a  single  original  people.  Such  phrases 
as  "  classical  mythology,"  "  the  religion  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,"  "  the  deities  of  the  classical 
nations,"  were  frequent  alike  on  the  lips  of  teachers, 
and  in  the  language  of  authorized  text-books;  the 
Grecian  divinities  were  spoken  of  almost  universally 
by  their  (supposed)  equivalent  Latin  names;  and 
the  youth  would  have  been  considered  oifensively 
pedantic  who  should  have  hesitated  to  render  vHpa 
by  "  Juno,"  or  ArjfiTjzrjp  by  "  Ceres."  But  within 
the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  a  more  just  apprecia- 
tion of  the  facts  of  the  case  has  sprung  up;  the 
careful  investigation  which  has  been  made  of  the 

"origines"  both  of  Greece  and   Rome  has  shown, 

213 


214  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

first,  that  the  two  nations  were  but  remotely  con- 
nected in  race,  and  secondly,  that  their  religious 
systems  were  markedly  and  strikingly  different. 
Any  review  of  the  religious  systems  of  the  ancient 
world  that  is  attempted  at  the  present  day,  neces- 
sarily and  as  a  matter  of  course,  treats  separately 
the  religion  of  the  Hellenes  and  that  of  the  Romans ; 
and  we  are  thus  bound,  before  our  task  can  be  re- 
garded as  complete,  to  append  to  the  account  which 
we  have  already  given  of  the  Hellenic  religious 
system  a  chapter  on  the  "  Religion  of  the  Ancient 
Romans." 

Following  the  method  which  we  have  hitherto  for 
the  most  part  pursued,  we  propose  to  consider,  first, 
the  objects  of  worship  at  Rome,  and  secondly,  the 
character  and  peculiarities  of  the  worship  which  was 
paid  to  them.  "We  may  note,  en  passant,  that  the 
religion  was  a  polytheism,  in  its  general  character 
similar  to  that  of  Greece,  but  distinguished  by  its 
comparatively  scanty  development  of  the  polytheistic 
idea  in  respect  of  Nature  and  the  parts  of  Nature, 
and  its  ample  development  of  that  idea  in  connection 
with  human  life,  its  actions,  parts,  and  phases. 

The  great  gods  (Di  majores)  of  Rome  were  always 
regarded  as  twelve  in  number,  though  at  different 
periods  of  Roman  history  the  enumeration  of  "  the 
twelve  "  would  have  been  different.  If  we  go  back 
to  the  very  earliest — almost  pre-historic — time,  we 
may  perhaps  name  the  following  as  "  the  twelve  "  of 
the  primitive  system — Jupiter,  Juno  (=  Diana), 
Minerva,   Mars,  Bellona,  Vesta,    Ceres,   Saturnus, 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  215 

Ops,  Hercules,  Mercurius,  Neptune.     A  few  words 
must  be  said  concerning  each  of  these. 

JUPITER. 

The  Jupiter  (jv-pater),  or  "Father  Jove,"  of 
the  Romans  bore  a  real  resemblance  to  the  Greek 
Zeus,  with  whose  name  his  is  etymologically  iden- 
tical.1 The  idea  of  paternity,  attached  to  his  name 
in  ordinary  parlance,  implied  the  same  notion  which 
we  find  in  the  Hellenic  system,  viz.,  that  he  was  "the 
father  of  gods  and  men"  (hominum  sator  atque 
deorum,  Yirg.).  He  had  a  temple  from  the  very 
earliest  times  on  the  Capitoline  hill,  where  he  was 
worshipped  in  combination  with  Juno  and  Minerva, 
and  a  High  Priest,  the  "  Flamen  Dialis,"  who  main- 
tained his  cult  with  perpetual  burnt  sacrifice. 
Originally,  there  must  have  been  in  the  conception 
of  Jupiter  a  latent  monotheism ;  but  long  before  the 
first  settlement  was  made  by  any  Latins  in  Italy,  this 
idea  seems  to  have  evaporated ;  and  to  the  Romans 
of  the  earliest  times  whereof  we  have  any  trace,  Jove 
was  no  more  than  one  god  out  of  many2 — the  god, 
especially,  of  the  air,  the  sky,  the  firmament — who 
sent  down  lightning  from  above,  gave  rain,  directed 
the  flight  of  birds,  and  (as  Ve-Jovis)  impregnated 
the  atmosphere  with  fevers  and  pestilence.     He  was 

1  Both  names  are,  of  course,  closely  allied  to  the  Sanskrit 
"Dyaus,"  ''heaven,"  or  ''the  sky."  (See  Max  Miiller,  "Science 
of  Religion,"  p.  172.) 

2  This  is  applied  in  the  ordinary  appendage  to  his  name,  <(Op- 
timus  maximus,"  "the  best  and  greatest"  (of  the  gods). 


216  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Roman  pantheon,  only 
preceded  sometimes  in  solemn  invocations1  by  Janus, 
"the  spirit  of  opening,"  who  necessarily  presided 
over  beginnings  of  all  kinds.  A  sort  of  general 
superintendence  over  human  aifairs  was  assigned  to 
him ;  he  was  viewed  as  punishing  impiety  in  general, 
and  perjury  in  particular ;  he  knew  the  future,  and 
could  reveal  it ;  he  guarded  the  rights  of  property, 
and  was  viewed  as  a  sort  of  guardian  deity  of  the 
Roman  people  and  state.  He  has  been  called,  "the 
genius  of  the  Roman  people;"2  but  this  conception 
of  him  is  too  narrow.  He  was  certainly  much  more 
than  that.  If  not  the  "universal  lord,"  which  some 
have  considered  him,  he  was  at  any  rate  a  great  god 
— the  highest  conception  of  deity  which  was  ever 
reached  by  the  Romans. 

JUNO. 

Juno  is  a  mere  female  Jupiter,  possessing  no  sub- 
stantive or  separate  character,  unless  it  be  that  of  a 
special  protectress  of  women,  and  more  particularly 
of  matrons.  She  stands  to  Jupiter  as  Fauna  to  Fau- 
nus,  Luna  to  Lunus,  Amente  to  Amnion.  She  pre- 
sided especially  over  marriages  and  births,  being 
invoked  as  "Lucina,"  or  "she  that  brings  to  light," 
when  the  birth  drew  nigh,  and  as  "Pronuba"  when 
marriage  approached.  Identical  with  Diana  origi- 
nally (for  Diana  is  to  Jco^  as  Juno  to  Zzuq),  she 
came  gradually  to  be  considered  a  distinct  and  sepa- 

1  Liv,  viii.  9. 

2  Momnisen,  "History  of  Rome,"  vol.  i.  p.  176,  E.  T. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  217 

rate  deity — the  distinction  becoming  a  contrast  in  the 
later  times,  when  Diana  was  identified  with  the  Gre- 
cian Artemis.  As  Jivpiter  was  the  "king,"  so  Juno 
was  the  "queen  of  heaven"  (regina  cceli  or  ccelorum). 
She  was  invoked  under  many  names  besides  those 
already  mentioned.  She  was  "Yirginalis,"  as  pro- 
tecting maidens;  "Matrona,"  as  the  patroness  of 
married  women;  "Opigena,"  " help-giving;"  and 
"  Sospita,"  "  preserving/'  as  general  aider  of  the  fe- 
male sex.  A  great  festival  was  held  in  her  honour 
every  year  on  the  1st  of  March,  which  was  called 
Ilatronalia,  and  was  attended  by  all  Roman  matrons, 
who  regarded  her  as  at  her  pleasure  either  giving  or 
withholding  offspring.  It  was  perhaps  an  accident 
which  gave  Juno  the  presidency  over  money,  the 
Romans  having  found  it  convenient  to  establish 
their  first  mint  in  the  vicinity  of  her  temple  on  the 
Capitoline  hill,  where  she  was  worshipped  as  Juno 
Moneta,  or  "  Juno  the  admonitress." 

MINERVA. 

Minerva,  though  worshipped  in  common  by  the 
Etruscans  and  the  Romans,  appears  by  the  etymology 
of  her  name  to  have  been  essentially  a  Latin  deity. 
She  is  the  goddess  of  mind  (mens)  and  memory 
(memini,  reminiscor) — "  the  thinking,  calculating, 
inventive  power  personified/'1  Her  worship  was 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  the 
three  together  forming  the  Capitoline  Triad,  who 

1  Schmidt,  in  Dr.  Smith's  "  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiqui- 
ties," vol.  ii  p.  1090. 


218  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

alone  had  temples  on  that  hill  in  the  early  times. 
In  the  great  lectistemium  called  epulum  Jovis,  the 
images  of  the  three  were  brought  out  and  feasted 
together.  Minerva  was  the  patroness  both  of  the 
fine  arts  and  of  the  various  handicrafts — the  goddess 
of  sculptors,  painters,  musicians,  poets,  physicians, 
weavers,  dyers,  carpenters,  smiths,  ete.,  etc.  Each 
man  regarded  his  talents  as  coming  especially  from 
her;  and  as  success  in  war  is  the  fruit  of  prudence, 
perseverance,  contrivance,  stratagem,  as  much  as  of 
courage  and  sheer  brute  force,  Minerva  was  in  one 
respect1  a  war-goddess,  and  represented  with  a  hel- 
met, shield,  and  coat  of  mail.  The  chief  festival 
celebrated  in  honour  of  Minerva  was  the  Quinqua- 
trus  or  Quinquatria,  which  lasted  five  days — from 
the  19th  of  March  to  the  23rd. 

MARS. 

In  Mavors  or  Mars  we  have  "  the  central  object, 
not  only  of  Roman,  but  Italian,  worship  in  general " l 
— the  real  main  object  of  public  religious  regard 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula. 
Originally,  perhaps,  Maurs  (Mors),  "the  killing 
god,"  and  therefore,  like  Siva  the  Destroyer,  attached 
to  no  special  department  of  human  life,  he  came  by 
degrees  to  have  the  most  destructive  of  human  occu- 
pations, war,  assigned  to  him  as  his  especial  field, 
and  to  be  regarded  as  the  god  who  went  out  to  battle 
at  the  head  of  each  army — invisibly  but  really  present 
— who  hurled  his  spear  at  the  foe,  struck  terror  into 

1  So  Mommsen,  "  History  of  Rome,"  vol.  i.  p.  175,  E.  T. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  219 

them,  disordered  their  ranks,  and  gave  to  his  wor- 
shippers the  victory.  Practically  ousting  Jupiter 
from  the  regards  of  men,  he  became  Marspiter1 
(Maspiter,  "Father  Mars,"  the  god  to  whom  alone 
they  looked  for  protection.  The  first  month  of  the 
year  was  dedicated  to  him,  and  thence  took  the  name 
which  it  bears  in  most  modern  European  languages. 
The  great  muster-ground  of  the  people  before  they 
went  out  to  war  became  the  "  Campus  Martius ;"  and 
war  itself  was  sometimes  designated  by  his  name,  as 
intellectual  ability  was  by  that  of  Minerva.  As 
marching  at  the  head  of  Roman  troops,  he  was 
called  Gradivus,  as  avenging  them  upon  their 
enemies,  Ultor.  Like  Jupiter,  he  had  his  High 
Priest — the  "Flamen  Martialis" — whose  business 
it  was  to  present  to  him  burnt  offerings.  He  had 
also  attached  to  his  worship  from  very  ancient  times 
a  college  of  priests  known  as  Salii  ("  dancers  "),  who 
performed  war-dances  in  his  honour,  clad  in  armour, 
and  carrying  the  sacred  shields  supposed  to  have 
fallen  from  heaven,  and  called  aneilia.  The  wolf, 
the  horse,  and  the  woodpecker  were  sacred  to  him. 
A  great  festival  was  held  in  his  honour  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  year,  commencing  on  the  1st  March. 

BELLONA. 

Bellona,  or  Duellona,2  stood  to  Mars  as  Juno  to 
Jupiter,  except  that  there  was  no  etymological  con- 
nection between  the  names.     She  was  the  goddess  of 

1  Liv.  viii.  9. 

2  Fabretti,  "Corpus  Inscr.  Italicarum,"  p.  323. 


220  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

war  (bellum  or  duellum),  was  spoken  of  as  the  wife  or 
sister  of  Mars,  and  had  a  temple  iD  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius,  where  the  ceremony  of  proclaiming  war  was 
performed.  A  college  of  priests,  called  Bellonarii, 
conducted  her  worship,  and  were  bound,  when  they 
offered  sacrifice  in  her  honour,  to  wound  their  own 
arms  or  legs,  and  either  to  offer  up  upon  her  altar 
the  blood  which  flowed  from  their  wounds,  or  else 
to  swallow  it  themselves.  The  24th  of  March  was 
especially  appointed  for  these  ceremonies,  and  for 
this  reason  was  known  in  the  Roman  calendar  as  the 
"  day  of  blood  "  (dies  sanguinis).  Bellona  was  re- 
presented as  armed  with  a  bloody  scourge,1  and  was 
solemnly  invoked  in  dangerous  crises  by  generals  on 
the  battle  field.2 

VESTA. 

Vesta,  identical  with  the  Grecian  Hestia  (kE<rria), 
was  an  ancient  goddess,  whose  worship  the  Latins 
brought  with  them  into  Italy  from  their  primitive 
settlements  in  the  far  East.  In  her  earliest  concep- 
tion, she  was  the  goddess  of  the  human  dwelling 
(vas,  vasana,  Sanskr.)  generally:  but,  according  to 
Roman  ideas,  it  was  the  national,  rather  than  the 
domestic,  hearth  over  which  she  presided.  Her 
temple  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Rome.  It  lay 
at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  a  little  east 
of  the  Forum,  and  was  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
a  sacred  grove,  also  dedicated  to  Vesta.   The  regular 

1  Virgil,  "iEn."  viii.  703;  Lucan,  "  Phars."  vii.  569. 

2  Liv.  viii.  9;  x.  19. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  221 

worship  of  the  goddess  was  entrusted  to  a  college  of 
six  women,  known  as  " Vestal  Virgins"  (Virgines 
Vestales),  whose  special  duty  it  was  to  preserve  the 
sacred  fire  upon  the  altar  which  represented  the 
national  hearthstone,  and  not  to  allow  it  ever  to  be 
extinguished.  They  dwelt  together  in  a  cloister 
(atrium)  &  little  apart  from  the  temple,  under  the 
presidency  of  the  eldest  sister  ( Vestalis  maxima)  and 
under  the  superintendence  and  control  of  the  college 
of  Pontifices.  Besides  watching  the  fire,  they  had  to 
present  offerings  to  Vesta  at  stated  times,  and  to 
sprinkle  and  purify  the  shrine  each  morning  with 
water  from  the  Egerian  spring.  A  festival  was  held 
in  honour  of  the  goddess  annually  on  the  9th  of 
June,  at  which  no  man  might  be  present,  but  which 
was  attended  by  the  Roman  matrons  generally,  who 
walked  in  procession  with  bare  feet  from  the  various 
quarters  of.  the  city  to  the  temple.  There  was  no 
image  in  the  temple  of  Vesta,  the  eternal  fire  being 
regarded  as  symbolising  her  sufficiently. 

CEEES. 

A  god,  Cerus,  and  a  goddess  Cerie,  are  found  to 
have  been  worshipped  by  the  early  Italians ; l  and  it 
is  a  reasonable  conjecture  that  these  names  are  con- 
nected with  the  Latin  "Ceres."  The  Latin  writers 
derived  that  word  either  from  gero  or  creo,2  and  con- 

1  Fabretti,  "  Corpus  Ins.  Italic."  pp.  829,  830. 

2  Varro  ("  De  Ling.  Lat."  v.  6-4),  and  Cicero  ("De  Nat.  Deor." 
ii.  26),  derive  it  from  gero;  Servius  ("Coram,  ad  Virg.  Georg. " 
i.  6),  and  Macrobius  ("Saturn."  i.  18)  from  crco. 


222  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

siclered  that  it  was  given  to  mark  that  the  deity  in 
question  was  the  "  bringer  "  or  "  ereator  "  of  those 
fruits  of  the  earth  on  which  the  life  of  man  mainly 
depends.  According  to  some,  Ceres  was  the  same  as 
Tell  us ;  but  this  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  case 
anciently.  Ceres  was  the  goddess  of  agriculture,  and 
was  connected  from  a  very  early  date  with  Liber,  the 
Latin  Bacchus,  the  god  of  the  vineyard.  That  Ceres 
should  have  been  one  of  the  "  great  divinities,"  marks 
strongly  the  agricultural  character  of  the  early  Roman 
state,  which  did  not  give  to  Liber,  or  to  Pomona, 
any  such  position.  The  worship  of  Ceres  merged 
after  a  time  in  that  of  Demeter,  whose  peculiar 
rites  were  imported  either  from  Yelia  or  frOm  Sicily. 

SATUENUS. 

Saturn  us  was  properly  the  god  of  sowing,  but  was 
regarded,  like  Ceres,  as  a  general  deity  of  agriculture, 
and  was  represented  with  a  pruning-hook  in  his  hand, 
and  with  wool  about  his  feet.  His  statue  was  made 
hollow,  and  was  filled  with  olive  oil,  significant  of 
the  "  fatness"  and  fertility  which  he  spread  over  the 
land.  His  festival,  the  Saturnalia,  held  in  Decem- 
ber, from  the  17th  to  the  24th,  was  a  sort  of  harvest- 
home,  commemorative  of  the  conclusion  of  all  the 
labours  of  the  year,  and  was  therefore  celebrated  with 
jocund  rites,  mirth,  and  festivity,  an  intermixture  of 
all  ranks  upon  equal  terms,  and  an  interchange  of 
presents.  The  temple  of  Saturn  at  Rome  stood  at 
the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  hill,  and  was  assigned  to 
a  remote  antiquity,  though  with  variations  as  to  the 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  223 

exact  date.  It  was  used  as  a  record  office,  and  also 
as  the  public  treasury,  which  was  regarded  as  mainly 
filled  by  the  produce  of  agricultural  industry.  The 
identification  of  Saturnus  with  the  Grecian  Cronus 
was  a  foolish  fancy  of  the  Hellenising  period,  the  truth 
being  that "  there  is  no  resemblance  whatever  between 
the  attributes  of  the  two  deities." 1 

OPS. 

With  Saturn  must  be  placed  Ops,  who  was  some- 
times called  his  wife,  and  whose  worship  certainly 
stood  in  a  very  close  connection  with  his.  Ops  was 
properly  the  divinity  of  field-labour  {opus,  opera) ; 
but  as  such  labour  is  productive  of  wealth,  Ops  came 
to  be  also  the  goddess  of  plenty  and  of  riches,  and  her 
name  is  the  root-element  in  such  words  as  opimus, 
opulentus,  inops,  and  the  like.  She  was  generally 
worshipped  together  with  Saturn,  and  had  temples  in 
common  with  him ;  but  still  she  had  her  own  separate 
sanctuary  on  the  Capitoline  hill,2  where  honours  were 
paid  to  her  apart  from  any  other  deity.  Her  festival, 
the  Opalia,  fell  on  December  19th,  or  the  third  day 
of  the  Saturnalia,  and  was  thus  practically  merged  in 
that  of  the  god  of  agriculture.  Ops,  like  Ceres,  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  Tellus,  but  the  three 
goddesses  were  to  the  Latin  mind  distinct,  Tellus 
being  a  personification  of  the  earth  itself,  Ceres  of  the 
productive  power  in  nature,  which  brings  forth  fruits 

1  Schmidt,  in  Smith's  "Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog."  vol. 
iii.  p.  726. 

2  Liv.  xxxix.  22. 


224  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

out  of  the  earth,  and  Ops  of  the  human  labour  with- 
out which  the  productive  power  runs  to  waste, 
aud  is  insufficient  for  the  sustenance  of  human  life. 

HERCULES. 

The  near  resemblance  of  Hercules  to  Heracles  led, 
almost  necessarily,  to  the  idea,  everywhere  prevalent 
until  recently,  that  the  two  gods  were  identical,  and 
that  therefore  either  Hercules  was  an  ancient  deity 
common  to  the  Latins  with  the  Hellenes  before  the 
former  migrated  into  Italy,  or  else  that  he  was  an 
importation  from  Greece,  introduced  at  a  compara- 
tively late  period.  Recently,  however,  the  etymolo- 
gical connection  of  the  two  names  has  been  ques- 
tioned, and  it  has  been  suggested1  that  Hercules  is, 
like  Ceres,  and  Saturn,  and  Ops,  and  Mars,  and  Mi- 
nerva, a  genuine  Italic  god,  quite  unconnected  witli 
Heracles,  who  is  a  genuine  Hellenic  divinity.  The 
root  of  the  name  Hercules  has  been  found  in  hercus 
(itoxoz)  "a  fence"  or  "  enclosure,"  whence  her  Gere  or 
arecre,  "to  ward  off/'  "keep  back,"  "shield."  Her- 
cules, whose  worship  was  certainly  as  ancient  at 
Rome  as  that  of  any  other  deity,  would  thus  be 
"  the  god  of  the  enclosed  homestead,"  and  thence  in 
general  "  the  god  of  property  and  gain." 2  He  was 
regarded  as  presiding  over  faith,  the  basis  of  the 
social  contract,  and  of  all  dealings  between  man  and 
man,  and  hence  was  known  as  Deus  jidius,  "  the  god 
of  good  faith,"  who  avenged  infractions  of  it.     In 

1  Mommsen,  "History  of  Home,"  vol.  i.  p.  171. 

2  Ibid. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  225 

the  early  times  he  seems  to  have  had  no  temple  at 
Rome ;  but  his  Great  Altar  in  the  cattle-market  was 
one  of  the  most  sacred  sites  in  the  city ; ]  oaths  were 
sworn  there,  and  contracts  concluded ;  nor  was  it 
unusual  for  Roman  citizens  to  devote  to  it  a  tenth 
part  of  their  property,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
the  god's  favour,  or  for  the  fulfilment  of  a  vow. 
The  worship  of  Hercules  was  not  exclusively  Roman, 
not  even  Latin,  but  Italic.  He  was  "  reverenced  in 
every  spot  of  Italy,  and  had  altars  erected  to  him 
everywhere,  in  the  streets  of  the  towns  as  well  as  by 
the  roadsides." 2 

MERCURIUS. 

Mercurius  was  the  god  of  commerce  and  traffic 
generally.  As  trade  was  not  looked  upon  with  much 
respect  at  Rome,  his  position  among  the  "  great  gods" 
was  a  low  one.  He  had  no  very  ancient  temple  or 
priesthood,  and,  when  allowed  the  honour  of  a  tem- 
ple in  the  second  decade  of  the  Republic,3  his  wor- 
ship seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  plebeian  and  of 
an  inferior  character.  Connected  with  it  was  a 
"  guild  of  merchants  " 4  (collegium  mercatorum),  called 
afterwards,  "  Mercuriales,"  who  met  at  the  temple 
on  certain  fixed  days  for  a  religious  purpose.  The 
cult  of  Mercury  was,  like  that  of  Hercules,  very 
widely  diffused ;  but  it  was  affected  chiefly  by  the 
lower  orders,  and  had  not  much  hold  upon  the 
nation. 

1  See  Liv.  i.  7;  ix.  29.  2  Mommscn,  1.  s.  c. 

3  Liv.  ii.  27. 

*  Mebuhr,  "History  of  Rome,"  vol.  i.  p.  589,  note,  E.  T. 

15 


226  TJie  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

KEPTUNUS. 

The  Latin  Neptunus  is  reasonably  identified  with 
the  Etruscan  Nethuns,1  who  was  a  water  god,  widely 
worshipped  by  that  seafaring  people.  The  word  is 
probably  to  be  connected  with  the  root  nib  or  nip, 
found  in  viiirco,  u7ZTijp,  xkp-vifi-o.,  x.  t.  X.  There  is 
not  much  trace  of  the  worship  of  Neptune  at  Rome 
in  the  early  times,  for  Livy's  identification  of  him 
with  Consus,2  the  god  honoured  in  the  Consualia, 
cannot  be  allowed.  We  find  his  cult,  however,  fully 
established  in  the  second  century  of  the  Republic,3 
when  it  was  united  with  that  of  Mercury,  the  mer- 
cantile deity.  In  later  times  he  had  an  altar  in  the 
Circus  Flaminius,  and  a  temple  in  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius.  A  festival  was  held  in  his  honour,  called 
Neptunalia,  on  the  23rd  day  of  July,  which  was 
celebrated  with  games,  banquets,  and  carousals.  The 
people  made  themselves  booths  at  this  time  with  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  feasted  beneath  the  pleasant 
shade  of  the  green  foliage.  Roman  admirals,  on 
quitting  port  with  a  fleet,  were  bound  to  sacrifice  to 
Neptune,  and  the  entrails  of  the  victims  were  thrown 
into  the  sea.  After  the  Greek  mythology  became 
known  to  the  Romans,  Neptune  was  completely 
identified  with  Poseidon,  and  became  invested  with 
all  his  attributes.  Amphitrite  became  his  wife,  and 
the  Nereids  his  companions.4 

In  succession  to  the  twelve  deities  of  the  first  rank 

i  Taylor,  "Etruscan  Researches,"  p.  138. 
2  Liv.  i.  9.  3  Ibid.  v.  13.  4  Hor.  Od.  iii.  28,  1.  10. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  227 

may  be  placed  the  following  important  groups : — 

1.  The  gods  of  the  country:  Tellus,  or  Mother 
Earth ;  Silvan  us,  god  of  the  woods ;  Pomona,  god- 
dess of  orchards ;  Flora,  goddess  of  flowers ;  Faunus 
("  favouring  god  "),  presiding  over  flocks  and  herds ; 
and  Yertumnus,  god   of  the  changing  year  (verto). 

2.  The  State  gods  :  Terminus,  god  of  the  boundary ; 
Consus,  god  of  the  State's  secret  counsels ;  Quirinus, 
god  of  the  Quirinal  and  of  the  Quirites,  or  Roman 
people ;  and  the  Penates,  gods  of  the  State's  property 
(penus).  3.  The  personifications  of  abstract  qual- 
ities: Pietas,  goddess  of  piety;  Fides,  of  faith; 
Spes,  of  hope ;  Pax,  of  peace  abroad  ;  Concordia,  of 
peace  at  home ;  Libertas,  of  liberty ;  Fortuna,  of  good 
luck ;  Juventas,  of  youth ;  Salus,  of  health ;  Pudicitia, 
of  modesty ;  Victoria,  of  victory ;  Cupid,  god  of 
desire ;  Pavor,  of  fright ;  Pallor,  of  paleness ;  and 
the  like.  4.  The  Nature  gods :  Coelus,  Terra,  Sol, 
Lunus,  or  Luna,  iEsculanus,  Argentinus,  etc.  And 
5.  The  divinities  introduced  from  Greece :  Apollo, 
Bacchus,  Latona,  Pluto,  Plutus,  Proserpine,  Castor, 
Pollux,  JEsculapius,  Priapus,  iEolus,  the  Fates,  the 
Furies,  etc. 

To  this  brief  sketch  of  the  chief  objects  of  wor- 
ship among  the  ancient  Romans,  it  follows  to  add 
some  account  of  the  character  of  the  worship  itself. 

The  worship  of  most  of  the  gods  was  specially 
provided  for  by  the  State,  which  established  paid 
priesthoods,  to  secure  the  continual  rendering  of  the 
honours  due  to  each.  The  highest  order  of  priests 
bore  the  name  of  Flamines,   which   is   thought  to 


228  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

mean  "kindlers  of  fire,"1  i.e.,  offerers  of  burnt  sacri- 
fice. The  Flamines  were  of  two  classes,  Majores  and 
Minores,  the  former  of  whom  were  always  taken 
from  the  patrician  order.  These  were  the  Flamen 
Dialis,  or  "  priest  of  Jove,"  the  Flamen  Martial  is, 
or  "  priest  of  Mars,"  and  the  Flamen  Quirinalis,  or 
u  priest  of  Quirinus."  Among  the  Flamines  Minores, 
many  of  whom  were  of  late  institution,  we  find 
those  of  Vertumnus,  Flora,  Pomona,  and  Vulcan.2 
The  Flamen  was  in  each  case  the  principal  sacrificing 
priest  in  the  chief  temple  of  the  god  or  goddess,  and 
was  bound  to  be  in  continual  attendance  upon  the 
shrine,  and  to  superintend  the  entire  worship  offered 
at  it.  In  addition  to  the  Flamen,  or  in  his  place, 
there  was  attached  to  all  temples  a  collegium,  or  body 
of  priests,  which  might  consist  of  all  the  male  mem- 
bers of  a  particular  family,  as  the  Potitii  and 
Pinarii,3  but  was  more  commonly  a  close  corpora- 
tion, limited  in  number,  and  elected  by  co-optation, 
i.e.,  by  the  votes  of  the  existing  members. 

Amongst  the  most  important  of  these  corporations 
were  the  two  collegia  of  Salii,  or  "  dancing  priests," 
which  were  attached  to  the  temple  of  Mars  upon  the 
Palatine  hill,  and  to  that  of  Quirinus  upon  the 
Quirinal.  The  former — Salii  Palatini — had  the 
charge  of  the  ancilia,  or  sacred  shields,  one  of  which 
was  believed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  to  be 
fatally  connected  with  the  safety  of  the  Roman  State. 
In  the  great  festival  of  Mars,  with  which  the  year 

1  Mommsen,  "History  of  Rome,"  vol.  i.  p.  175. 

2  Ennius  ap.  Varronem,  "De  Ling.  Lat."  vii.  44.         3  Liv.  i.  7. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  229 

opened,  they  inarched  in  procession  through  the  city, 
bearing  the  ancilia  on  their  shoulders,  and  striking 
them  from  time  to  time,  as  they  danced  and  sang, 
with  a  rod.  The  Salii  of  Quirinus — Salii  Collini  or 
Agonales — were  a  less  important  college.  Their 
duties  connected  them  with  the  worship  of  Quirinus, 
who  is  believed  by  some  to  have  been  the  Sabine 
Mars,1  and  with  the  festival  of  the  Quirinalia.  Like 
the  other  Salii,  they  no  doubt  performed  war-dances 
in  honour  of  their  patron  deity.  A  third  collegium, 
or  priestly  corporation  of  high  rank,  was  that  of  the 
six  Vestal  Virgins,  attached,  as  their  name  implies, 
to  the  worship  of  Vesta,  and  regarded  with  peculiar 
veneration,  as  having  vowed  themselves  to  chastity 
in  the  service  of  the  nation.  Other  collegia  of  some 
importance,  but  of  a  lower  rank,  were  that  of  the 
Fratres  Arvales,  a  college  of  twelve  priests  attached 
to  the  cult  of  Ceres,  who  celebrated  a  festival  to  her 
as  the  Dea  dia  (divine  goddess)  in  the  early  summer 
time  ;  and  that  of  the  Luperci,  or  "  wolf-expellers," 
a  shifting  body  of  persons,  whose  chief  business  it 
was  to  conduct  the  Lupercalia,  a  festival  held  an- 
nually on  the  15th  of  February,  in  honour  of 
Lupercus,  or  Faunus.  The  Sodales  Titii  had  duties 
similar  to  those  of  the  Fratres  Arvales ;  and  the 
Flamines  Curiales,  thirty  in  number,  offered  sacri- 
fices for  the  preservation  of  the  thirty  curies  of  the 
original  Roman  people. 

From  these  collegia  of  priests,  we  must  carefully 
distinguish   the   learned   corporations,    "colleges  of 
*  Mommsen,  vel.  i.  pp.  87  and  175. 


230  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

sacred  lore/'  as  they  have  been  called,1  who  had  no 
priestly  duties,  and  no  special  connection  with  any 
particular  deity.  There  were  four  principal  colleges 
of  this  kind — those  of  the  Pontifices,  the  Augurs,  the 
Fetials,  and  the  Duumviri  sacrorum. 

The  Pontifices,  originally  four  (or  five,  if  we  in- 
clude the  pontifex  maximus),  but  afterwards  raised  to 
nine,  and  ultimately  to  sixteen,  had  the  general 
superintendence  of  religion.  They  exercised  a  con- 
trol over  all  the  priests,  even  the  Flamens.  They 
were  supposed  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all 
the  traditions  with  regard  to  the  appropriate  worship 
of  each  divinity ;  to  understand  the  mysteries  of  num- 
bers, and  to  be  deeply  versed  in  astronomy — whence 
they  settled  the  calendar,  determining  when  each 
festival  was  to  be  held,  and  what  days  were  fasti  or 
nefasti,  i.e.,  days  suitable  for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness, or  the  contrary.  All  prodigies  and  omens  had 
to  be  reported  to  them ;  and  with  them  it  lay  to  de- 
termine what  steps  should  be  taken  to  appease  the 
gods  in  connection  with  each.  They  had  to  furnish 
the  proper  formula  on  all  great  religious  occasions,  as 
the  dedication  of  a  temple,2  the  self-devotion  of  a 
general,3  and  the  like.  There  was  no  appeal  from 
their  decisions,  unless  in  some  cases  to  the  people; 
and  they  could  enforce  obedience  by  the  infliction  of 
fines,  and,  under  certain  circumstances,  of  death. 

The  Augurs,  originally  four,  like  the  Pontiffs,  and 
raised,  like  them,  first  to  nine,  and  later  to  sixteen, 

1  Mommsen,  vol.  i.  p.  177,  178. 

2  Liv.  i.  46.  3  Ibid.  viii.  9  ;  x.  28. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  231 

were  regarded  as  possessed  especially  of  the  sacred 
lore  connected  with  birds.  Augural  birds  were  limited 
in  number,  and  were  believed  to  give  omens  in  three 
ways,  by  flight,  by  note,  or  by  manner  of  feeding. 
The  Augurs  knew  exactly  what  constituted  a  good, 
and  what  a  bad,  omen  in  all  these  ways.  They  were 
consulted  whenever  the  State  commenced  any  im- 
portant business.  No  assembly  could  be  held,  no 
election  could  take  place,  no  war  could  be  begun,  no 
consul  could  quit  Rome,  no  site  for  a  new  temple 
could  be  fixed  on,  unless  the  Augurs  were  present, 
and  pronounced  that  the  birds  gave  favourable  omens. 
In  war,  they  watched  the  feeding  of  the  sacred 
chickens,  and  allowed  or  forbade  engagements,  ac- 
cording as  the  birds  ate  greedily  or  the  contrary. 
Divination  from  celestial  phenomena,  especially 
thunder  and  lightning,  was,  at  a  comparatively  late 
date,  added  to  their  earlier  functions.  As  their 
duties  enabled  them  to  exercise  a  veto  upon  laws, 
and  very  seriously  to  influence  elections,  the  office 
was  much  sought  after  by  candidates  for  political 
power,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  highest  digni- 
ties in  the  State.1 

The  Fetials,  a  college  of  (probably)  twenty  per- 
sons, were  the  living  depositary  of  international  law 
and  right.  All  the  treaty  obligations  of  Rome  and 
her  neighbours  were  supposed  to  be  known  to  them, 
and  it  was  for  them  to  determine  when  a  war  could 
be  justly  undertaken,  and  what  reparation  should  be 
demanded  for  injuries.  Not  only  did  they  furnish 
i  Cic.  De  Leg.  ii.  12. 


232  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

the  forms  for  demanding  satisfaction,1  declaring  war,2 
and  making  peace,3  but  their  own  personal  interven- 
tion was  requisite  in  every  case.  Invested  with  a 
sacred  character,  they  were  the  intermediaries  em- 
ployed by  the  State  in  making  complaints,  proclaiming 
war,  and  seeing  that  treaties  were  concluded  with  the 
proper  formalities.  In  the  conclusion  of  such  en- 
gagements they  even  acted  as  veritable  priests,  slay- 
ing with  their  own  hands  the  victims,  by  offering 
which  a  sacred  character  was  given  to  treaty  obliga- 
tions. 

The  Duumviri  sacrorum  were  the  keepers,  consul- 
ters,  and  interpreters  of  the  Sibylline  books,  a  col- 
lection of  pretended  prophecies,  written  in  Greek, 
and  no  doubt  derived  from  a  Greek  source.  They 
were,  as  their  name  implies,  a  collegium  of  two  per- 
sons only,4  and  in  the  early  times  were  required  to 
be  Romans  of  a  very  high  rank.  As  such  persons, 
not  unfrequently,  were  very  ignorant  of  the  Greek, 
the  State  furnished  them  with  two  slaves  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  language.  It  was  customary  to 
consult  the  Sibyline  books  in  case  of  pestilence,  or  of 
any  extraordinary  prodigy,  and  to  follow  scrupulous- 
ly the  advice  which  they  were  thought  to  give  in  re- 
ference to  the  occasion. 

Such  were  the  learned  colleges  of  ancient  Rome. 
Though  exercising  considerable  political  influence, 
they  never  became  dangerous  to  the  State,  from  the 

1  Liv.  i.  32.  2  Ibid.  3  Ibid.  i.  24. 

4  The  office  was  subsequently  expanded  into  that  of  the  de- 
cemviri sacris  faciundis,  who  ultimately  became  quindecimviri. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  233 

circumstance  that  they  could  in  no  case  take  the 
initiative.  Their  business  was  to  give  answers  to 
inquirers;  and,  until  consulted,  they  were  dumb. 
Private  persons  as  well  as  public  officers  might  ap- 
peal to  them;  and  calls  were  frequently  made  on 
them  to  bring  forth  their  secret  knowledge  into  the 
light  of  day  by  the  magistrates.  But  it  was  of  their 
essence  to  be  consultative,  and  not  initiative,  or  even 
executive  bodies.  Hence,  notwithstanding  the  pow- 
ers which  they  wielded,  and  the  respect  in  which 
they  were  held,  they  at  no  time  became  ^a  danger  to 
the  State.  Sacerdotalism  plays  no  part  in  Roman 
history.  "Notwithstanding  all  their  zeal  for  re- 
ligion, the  Romans  adhered  with  unbending  strict- 
ness to  the  principle,  that  the  priest  ought  to  remain 
completely  powerless  in  the  State,  and,  excluded  from 
command,  ought,  like  any  other  burgess,  to  render 
obedience  to  the  humblest  magistrate."  l 

The  public  religion  of  the  Romans  consisted, 
mainly,  in  the  observance  by  the  State  of  its  obliga- 
tion (religio)  to  provide  for  the  cult  of  certain  tradi- 
tional deities,  which  it  did  by  building  temples, 
establishing  priesthoods,  and  securing  the  continu- 
ance of  both  by  endowments.  Further,  the  State 
showed  a  constant  sense  of  religion  by  the  position 
which  it  assigned  to  augury,  and  the  continual  need 
of  "  taking  the  auspices  "  on  all  important  civil  oc- 
casions. In  declaring  war,  religious  formulae  were 
used ;  in  conducting  it,  the  augurs,  or  their  subordi- 
nates, were  frequently  consulted  ;  in  bringing  it  to 
1  Mommsen,  "History  of  Rome,"  vol.  i.  p.  180. 


234  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

an  end  and  establishing  peace,  the  fetials  had  to  be 
called  in,  and  the  sanction  of  religion  thus  secured 
to  each  pacific  arrangement.  The  great  officers  of 
the  State  were  inducted  into  their  posts  with  religious 
solemnities,  and  were  bound  to  attend  and  take  their 
part  in  certain  processions  and  sacrifices.  In  times 
of  danger  and  difficulty  the  State  gave  orders  for 
special  religious  ceremonies,  to  secure  the  favour  of 
the  gods,  or  avert  their  wrath. 

The  religion  of  the  mass  of  the  people  consisted 
principally  in  four  things  :  1.  Daily  offerings  by  each 
head  of  a  household  (paterfamilias)  to  the  Lares  of 
his  own  house.  The  Lares  were  viewed  as  house- 
hold gods,  who  watched  over  each  man's  hearth  and 
home,  each  house  having  its  own  special  Lares.  In 
theory  they  were  the  spirits  of  ancestors,  and  their 
chief,  the  Lar  familiaris,  was  the  spirit  of  the  first 
ancestor,  the  originator  of  the  family;  but  practically 
the  ancestral  idea  was  not  prominent.  In  respectable 
houses  there  was  always  a  lararium,1  or  "  lar-chapel," 
containing  the  images  of  the  Lares ;  and  each  re- 
ligious Roman  commenced  the  day  with  prayer  in 
this  place,  accompanying  his  prayer,  upon  most  occa- 
sions, with  offerings,  which  were  placed  before  the 
images  in  little  dishes  (patellar).  The  offerings  were 
continually  renewed  at  meal-times ;  and  on  birthdays 
and  other  days  of  rejoicing  the  images  were  adorned 

1  The  Emperor  Alexander  Severus  had  two  lararia,  and  included 
amongst  the  Lares  of  the  one,  Abraham,  Orpheus,  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  Christ ;  amongst  those  of  the  other,  Achilles,  Cicero, 
and  Virgil. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  235 

with  wreaths,  and  the  lararia  were   thrown  open. 

2.  Occasional  thank-offerings  to  particular  gods  from 
persons  who  thought  they  had  been  favoured  by  them. 
These  were  carried  to  the  temples  by  the  donors,  and 
made  over  to  the  priests,  who  formally  offered  them, 
with    an    accompaniment   of    hymns   and    prayers. 

3.  Vows  and  their  performance.  To  obtain  a  par- 
ticular favour  from  a  god  supposed  to  be  capable  of 
granting  it,  a  Roman  was  accustomed  to  utter  a  vow, 
by  which  he  bound  himself  to  make  the  god  a  cer- 
tain present,  in  case  he  obtained  his  desire.  The 
present  might  be  a  temple,  or  an  altar,  or  a  statue, 
or  a  vase,  or  any  other  work  of  art,  but  was  almost 
always  something  of  a  permanent  character.  The 
Roman,  having  made  his  vow,  and  got  his  wish,  was 
excessively  scrupulous  in  the  discharge  of  his  obli- 
gation, which  he  viewed  as  of  the  most  binding 
character.  4.  Attendance  at  religious  festivals — 
the  Carmentalia,  Cerealia,  Compitalia,  Consualia, 
Floralia,  Lemuralia,  Lupercalia,  etc.  This  attend- 
ance was  in  no  sense  obligatory,  and  was  viewed 
rather  as  pleasure  than  duty — the  festivals  being 
usually  celebrated  with  games  (ludi)  and  other 
amusements. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  Roman  religion,  as  compared 
with  others,  and  especially  with  that  of  the  Greeks, 
strikes  us  as  dull,  tame,  and  matter-of-fact.  There 
is  no  beauty  in  it,  no  play  of  the  imagination,  and 
very  little  mystery.  It  is  "  of  earth,  earthy."  Its 
gods  are  not  great  enough,  or  powerful  enough,  to 
impress  the  mind  of  the  worshipper  with  a  perma- 


236  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

nent  sense  of  religious  awe — they  do  not  force  the 
soul  to  bow  down  before  them  in  humility  and  self- 
abasement.  The  Roman  believes  in  gods,  admits 
that  he  receives  benefits  from  them,  allows  the  duty 
of  gratitude,  and,  as  a  just  man,  punctually  dis- 
charges the  obligations  of  his  religion.1  But  his 
creed  is  not  elevating — it  does  not  draw  him  on  to 
another  world — it  does  not  raise  in  him  any  hopes  of 
the  future.  Like  the  Sadducee,  he  thinks  that  God 
rewards  and  punishes  men,  as  He  does  nations,  in  this 
life ;  his  thoughts  rarely  turn  to  another ;  and  if  they 
do,  it  is  with  a  sort  of  shiver  at  the  prospect  of  be- 
coming a  pale  shade,  haunting  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  tomb,  or  dwelling  in  the  cold  world  beneath,  shut 
out  from  the  light  of  day. 

If  the  Roman  religion  may  be  said  to  have  had 
anywhere  a  deeper  character  than  this — to  have  been 
mysterious,  soul-stirring,  awful — it  was  in  connection 
with  the  doctrine  of  expiation.  In  the  bright  clime 
of  Italy,  and  in  the  strong  and  flourishing  Roman 
community,  intensely  conscious  of  its  own  life  and 
vigour,  the  gods  could  not  but  be  regarded  predomi- 
nantly as  beneficent  beings,  who  showered  blessings 
upon  mankind.  But  occasionally,  under  special 
circumstances,  a  different  feeling  arose.  Earth- 
quakes shook  the  city,  and  left  great  yawning  gaps 
in  its  streets  or  squares;  the  Tiber  overflowed  its 
banks,  and  inundated  all  the  low  regions  that  lay 
about  the  Seven  Hills ;  pestilence  broke  out,  destroy- 

i  Note  the  idea  of  obligation  as  predominant  in  the  word 
"religion,"  from  re  and  lego  or  ligo,  "to  bind"  or  "tie." 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  237 

ing  thousands,  and  threatening  to  cany  off  the  entire 
people ;  or  the  fortune  of  war  hung  in  suspense,  nay, 
even  turned  against  the  warrior  nation.     At  such 
times  a  sense  of  guilt  arose,  and  pressed  heavily  on 
the  consciences  of  the  Romans ;  they  could  not  doubt 
that  Heaven  was  angry  with  them  ;  they  did  not  dare 
to  dispute  that  the  Divine  wrath  was  provoked  by 
their   sins.      Then   sacrifice,  which   in    Rome   was 
generally  mere  thank-offering,  took  the  character  of 
atonement   or    expiation.     The   gods   were   felt   to 
require  a  victim,  or  victims ;  and  something  must  be 
found  to  content  them — something  of  the  best  and 
dearest  that  the  State  possessed.     What  could  this 
be  but  a  human  sacrifice  ?     Such  a  sacrifice  might  be 
either  voluntary  or  involuntary.     Enhanced  by  the 
noble  quality  of  patriotic  self-abnegation,  a  single 
victim  sufficed — more  especially  if  he  were  of  the 
best  and  noblest — a  young  patrician  of  high  promise, 
like  Marcus  Curtius,1  or  an  actual  consul,  like  the 
Decii.2     Without  this  quality  there  must  be  several 
victims — either  a  sacred  and  complete  number,  like 
the  thirty,  once  offered  annually  at  the  Lemuralia, 
whereof  the  thirty  rush  dolls  thrown  yearly  into  the 
Tiber  were  a  reminiscence,  or  else  an  indefinite  num- 
ber, such  as  the  gods  themselves  might  determine  on, 
as  when  a  "  ver  sacrum "  was  proclaimed,  and  all 
offspring,  both  of  men  and  of  sacrificial  cattle,  pro- 
duced  within   the   first   month   of  opening   spring 

i  Liv.  vii.  6. 

2  Ibid.  vii.  9 ;  x.  28. 


238  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

(Aprilis),  were   devoted   to   death  and  sacrificed  to 
avert  God's  Avrath  from  the  nation.1 

The  mythological  fables  in  which  the  Greeks  in- 
dulged from  a  very  early  date  were  foreign  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Romans,  who  had  no  turn  for  allegory, 
and  regarded  the  gods  with  too  much  respect  and 
fear  to  invent  tales  about  them.  No  traditional 
accounts  of  the  dealings  of  the  gods  one  with  another 
gave  a  divine  sanction  to  immorality,  or  prevented 
the  Romans  from  looking  up  to  their  divinities  as  at 
once  greater  and  better  than  themselves.  The  moral 
law  was  recognised  as  an  accepted  standard  with  them, 
and  its  vindication  whenever  it  was  transgressed 
rested  with  the  deity  within  whose  special  sphere  the 
offence  was  conceived  to  fall.  Hercules  avenged 
broken  faith;  Ops  and  Ceres  punished  the  lazy 
cultivator ;  ill-conducted  matrons  incurred  the  anger 
of  Juno ;  the  violation  of  parental  or  filial  duty  fell 
under  the  cognisance  of  Jupiter.  Whenever  conduct 
was  felt  to  be  wrong,  yet  the  civil  law  visited  the 
misconduct  with  no  penalty,  the  displeasure  of  the 
gods  supplemented  the  legal  defect,  and  caused  the 
offender  in  course  of  time  to  meet  with  due  punish- 
ment. Their  belief  on  this  head  was,  in  part,  the 
effect,  but  it  was  also,  in  part,  the  cause  of  those 
profound  moral  convictions  which  distinguished  the 
Romans  among  ancient  nations.  They  were  deeply 
impressed  with  the  reality  of  moral  distinctions,  and 
convinced  that  sin  was  in  all  cases  followed  by  suffer- 

i  See  Festus,  sub  voc.  "Ver  sacrum,"  and  compare  Liv.  xxiii. 
9,  10 ;  xxxiv.  44 ;  Servius  ad  Virg.  JEn.  vii.  796,  etc. 


Religion  of  the  Ancient  Romans.  239 

ing.  The  stings  of  conscience  received  increased 
force  and  power  from  the  belief  in  a  Divine  agency 
that  seconded  the  judgments  of  conscience,  and  never 
failed  to  punish  offenders.1 

It  is  not  the  object  of  the  present  work  to  trace 
the  changes  which  came  in  course  of  time  over  the 
Roman  religion,  or  even  to  note  the  corrupting  in- 
fluences to  which  it  was  exposed.  The  subject  of 
"Ancient  Religions"  is  so  large  a  one,  that  we  have 
felt  compelled  to  limit  ourselves  in  each  of  our  por- 
traitures to  the  presentation  of  the  religion  in  a  single 
aspect,  that,  namely,  which  it  wore  at  the  full  com- 
pletion of  its  natural  and  national  development.  To 
do  more,  to  trace  each  religion  historically  from  its 
first  appearance  to  its  last  phase,  would  require  as 
many  chapters  as  we  have  had  pages  at  our  disposal. 
The  influence  of  religions  upon  each  other  is  a  mat- 
ter of  so  much  difficulty,  delicacy,  and  occasional 
complexity,  that  it  would  necessitate  discussions  of 
very  considerable  length.  An  exhaustive  work  on 
the  history  of  religions  would  have  to  embrace  this 
ample  field,  and  must  necessarily  run  to  several  vol- 
umes. In  the  present  series  of  sketches,  limited  as 
we  have  been  as  to  space,  we  have  attempted  no  more 
than  the  fringe  of  a  great  subject,  and  have  sought 
to  awaken  the  curiosity  of  our  readers  rather  than 
to  satisfy  it. 

1  Hor.  Od.  iii.  2,  11.  31,  32  ;  Tibull.  Carm.  i.  9,  1.  4. 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

It  has  been  maintained  in  the  "Introduction"  to 
this  work,  that  the  time  is  not  yet  come  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  "Science  of  Religion,"  and  that  the 
present  need  is  rather  to  accumulate  materials,  out  of 
which  ultimately  such  a 'science  may  perhaps  be 
evolved.  Still,  the  accumulation  of  materials  natur- 
ally suggests  certain  thoughts  of  a  more  general  char- 
acter ;  and  the  spirit  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  does 
not  forbid  the  drawing  of  inferences  from  groups  of 
phenomena,  even  while  the  greater  portion  of  the 
phenomena  are  unknown  or  uninvestigated.  While, 
therefore,  we  abstain  from  basing  any  positive  theory 
upon  a  survey  of  religions  which  is  confessedly  in- 
complete, we  think  that  certain  negative  conclusions 
of  no  little  interest  may  be  drawn  even  from  the  data 
now  before  us ;  and  these  negative  conclusions  it  seems 
to  be  our  duty  to  lay  before  the  reader,  at  any  rate 
for  his  consideration. 

In  the  first  place,  it  seems  impossible  to  trace  back 
to  any  one  fundamental  conception,  to  any  innate  idea, 
or  to  any  common  experience  or  observation,  the 
various  religions  which  we  have  been  considering. 
The  veiled  monotheism  of  Egypt,  the  dualism  of 
Persia,  the  shamanism  of  Etruria,  the  pronounced 
240 


Concluding  Remarks.  241 

polytheism  of  India,  are  too  contrariant,  too  absolutely 
unlike,  to  admit  of  any  one  explanation,  or  to  be  de- 
rivatives from  a  single  source.  The  human  mind 
craves  unity;  but  Nature  is  wonderfully  complex. 
The  phenomena  of  ancient  religions,  so  far  as  they 
have  been  investigated,  favour  the  view  that  religions 
had  not  one  origin,  but  several  distinct  origins. 

Secondly,  it  is  clear  that  from  none  of  the  religions 
here  treated  of  could  the  religion  of  the  ancient  He- 
brews have  originated.  The  Israelite  people  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  its  history  came,  and  remained  for  a 
considerable  time,  under  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  and 
Persian  influence ;  and  there  have  not  been  wanting 
persons  of  ability  who  have  regarded  "Judaism"  as  a 
mere  offshoot  from  the  religion  of  one  or  other  of  these 
three  peoples.  But,  with  the  knowledge  that  we 
have  now  obtained  of  the  religions  in  question,  such 
views  have  been  rendered  untenable,  if  not  henceforth 
impossible.  Judaism  stands  out  from  all  other  an- 
cient religions,  as  a  thing  sui  generis,  offering  the 
sharpest  contrast  to  the  systems  prevalent  in  the  rest 
of  the  East,  and  so  entirely  different  from  them  in  its 
spirit  and  its  essence  that  its  origin  could  not  but 
have  been  distinct  and  separate. 

Thirdly,  the  sacred  Books  of  the  Hebrews  cannot 

possibly  have  been  derived  from  the  sacred  writings 

of  any  of  these  nations.     No  contrast  can  be  greater 

than  that  between  the  Pentateuch  and  the  "  Ritual  of 

the  Dead,"  unless  it  be  that  between  the  Pentateuch 

and  the  Zendavesta,  or  between  the  same  work  and 

the  Vedas.     A  superficial  resemblance  may  perhaps 
16 


242  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

be  traced  between  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  and 
certain  of  the  myths  of  ancient  Babylon ;  but  the  tone 
and  spirit  of  the  two  are  so  markedly  different,  that 
neither  can  be  regarded  as  the  original  of  the  other. 
Where  they  approach  most  nearly,  as  in  the  accounts 
given  of  the  Deluge,  while  the  facts  recorded  are  the 
same,  or  nearly  the  same,  the  religious  stand-point  is 
utterly  unlike.1 

Fourthly,  the  historic  review  which  has  been  here 
made  lends  no  support  to  the  theory,  that  there  is  a 
uniform  growth  and  progress  of  religions  from 
fetishism  to  polytheism,  from  polytheism  to  mono- 
theism, and  from  monotheism  to  positivism,  as  main- 
tained by  the  followers  of  Comte.  None  of  the 
religions  here  described  shows  any  signs  of  having 
been  developed  out  of  fetishism,  unless  it  be  the 
shamanism  of  the  Etruscans.  In  most  of  them  the 
monotheistic  idea  is  most  prominent  at  the  first,  and 
gradually  becomes  obscured,  and  gives  way  before  a 
polytheistic  corruption.  In  all  there  is  one  element, 
at  least,  which  appears  to  be  traditional,  viz.,  sacri- 
fice, for  it  can  scarcely  have  been  by  the  exercise  of 
his  reason  that  man  came  so  generally  to  believe  that 
the  superior  powers,  whatever  they  were,  would  be 
pleased  by  the  violent  death  of  one  or  more  of  their 
creatures. 

Altogether,  the  theory  to  which  the  facts  appear 
on  the  whole  to  point,  is  the  existence  of  a  primitive 
religion,  communicated  to  man  from  without,  where- 

1  Compare  above,  pp.  68-72;  and  see  the  Author's  Essay  in 
"  Aids  to  Faith."     Essay  vi.,  pp.  275,  276. 


Concluding  Remarks.  243 

of  monotheism  and  expiatory  sacrifice  were  parts,  and 
the  gradual  clouding  over  of  this  primitive  revela- 
tion everywhere,  unless  it  were  among  the  Hebrews. 
Even  among  them  a  worship  of  Teraphim  crept  in 
(Gen.  xxxi.  19-35),  together  with  other  corruptions 
(Josh.  xxiv.  14)  j  and  the  terrors  of  Sinai  were 
needed  to  clear  away  polytheistic  accretions.  Else- 
where degeneration  had  free  play.  "A  dark  cloud 
stole  over  man's  original  consciousness  of  the 
Divinity ;  and,  in  consequence  of  his  own  guilt,  an 
estrangement  of  the  creature  from  the  one  living 
God  took  place;  man,  as  under  the  overpowering 
sway  of  sense  and  sensual  lust,  proportionally 
weakened,  therefore,  in  his  moral  freedom,  was  un- 
able any  longer  to  conceive  of  the  Divinity  as  a 
pure,  spiritual,  supernatural,  and  infinite  Being,  dis- 
tinct from  the  world,  and  exalted  above  it.  And 
thus  it  followed,  inevitably,  that,  with  his  intellectual 
horizon  bounded  and  confined  within  the  limits  of 
nature,  he  should  seek  to  satisfy  the  inborn  necessity 
of  an  acknowledgment  and  reverence  of  the  Divinity 
by  the  deification  of  material  nature  ;  for  even  in  its 
obscuration,  the  idea  of  the  Deity,  no  longer  recog- 
nised, indeed,  but  still  felt  and  perceived,  continued 
powerful ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  it,  the  truth  struck 
home,  that  the  Divinity  manifested  itself  in  nature 
as  ever  present  and  in  operation." l  The  cloud  was 
darker  and  thicker  in  some  places  than  in  others. 
There  were,  perhaps,  races  with  whom  the  whole  of 
the  past  became  a  tabula  rasa,  and  all  traditional 

1  Dollinger,  "  Jew  and  Gentile,"  vol.  i.  p.  65. 


244  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World. 

knowledge  being  lost,  religion  was  evolved  afresh 
out  of  the  inner  consciousness.  There  were  others 
which  lost  a  portion,  without  losing  the  whole  of 
their  inherited  knowledge.  There  were  others  again 
who  lost  scarcely  anything ;  but  hid  up  the  truth  in 
mystic  language  and  strange  symbolism.  The  only 
theory  which  accounts  for  all  the  facts — for  the  unity 
as  well  as  the  diversity  of  Ancient  Religions,  is  that 
of  a  primeval  revelation,  variously  corrupted  through 
the  manifold  and  multiform  deterioration  of  human 
nature  in  different  races  and  places. 


INDEX 


Aratus  quoted,  184 
Asherahs,  157 

Assyrians  and  Babylonians  : 

Astral  Deities,  52-59 
Belief  in  a  future  life,  62-64 

Deities : 

Anata,  or  Anat,  51 
Anu,  42,  43 
Asshur,  38-41 
Bel,  43,  44 
Bilat,  51 
Dav-kina,  51 
Gula,  or  Anunit,  51 
Hea,  or  Hoa,  43,  44 
II,  or  Ra,  37,  38 
Ishtar,  57,  59,  72-76 
Merodach,  53,  55 
Nebo,  58 
Nergal,  55,  56 
Nin,  or  Bar,  52-55 
Shala,  or  Tala,  52 
Shamas,  47-49 
Sin,  45-47 
Vul,  49,  60 

Lesser  gods,  59 
Legends : 

Creation  (Berosus),  65-67 
Deluge,  68-72 
Descent    of    Ishtar    into 
Hades,  72-76 


Assyrians — continued. 
Izdubar,  57 
War  in  heaven,  64,  65 

Polytheism,  35-37 
Prayers,  60,  61 
Sacrifices,  62 
Superstitions,  64 
Temples,  60 
Triads,  40-50 
Worship,  60-62 

Astronomers,  conjectures  of,  1 

Baal,  etymology  of,  133,  134 
Babylon,  etymology  of,  144 
Balak  quoted,  154 
Belief  in  a  future  life  : 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian, 

62-64 
Egyptian,  24-29 
Etruscan,  165-168 
Iranian,  92,  93 
Roman,  236 
Sanskritic  Indian,  125-127 

Bridge  of  the  gatherer,  legend 
of,  92,  93 

Bunsen's  list  of  Egyptian  Dei- 
ties, 9  n. 

Creation,  legend  of  (Berosus), 

65-67 

Dagon,  etymology  of,  142 
245 


246 


Index. 


Darius,  sculptures  on  the  tomb 

of,  88,  89 
Degradation  of  religion,  242 
Deluge,  legends  of,  44,  68-72 
Dualism  of  Iranians,  81,  93,  94 

Egyptians,  Ancient: 

Belief  in  a  future  life,  24-29 
Classification  of  deities,  8 
Dead,  treatment  of  the,  28 
Deities : 

Amnion,  10 

Khem,  11 

Kneph,  12 

Neith,  or  Net,  15,  16 

Osiris,  15 

Phthah,  12,  13 

Ra,  13-15 

Animal  gods,  20-23 

Nature  gods,  18 

Malevolent  gods,  18,  19 

Moon  gods,  17,  18 

Sun  gods,  16,  17 

Bunsen's  list  of,  9  n. 

Wilkinson's  list  of,  9  n. 

Embalming,  28 

Evil,  belief  in,  31-33 

Hymns,  31 

Polytheism,  6.  7 

Priests,  knowledge  of,  30,  31 

Sacrifices,  24 

Temples,  23 

Theological  system  of  edu- 
cated classes,  29-34 

Tombs,  28 

Triads,  19,  20,  34 

Trinity  supposed  doctrine  of, 
33 

Worship,  22-24 

Etruscans  : 

Belief  in  a  future  life,  165-168 
Deities : 

Charun,  166,  167 
Cupra,  161,  162 
Mantus  and  Mania,  166 


Deities — continued. 

Menrva,  or  Menrfa,  163 
Tina,  or  Tinia,  161,  162 
Usil  and  Losna,  163 
Elemental  gods,  164 
Genii,  or  spirits,  167, 168 
Lares,  the,  171 
Native  gods,  164 
Novensiles,  the,  165 
Priests,  169-171 
Sacrifices,  170,  171 
Superstition,  160,  174,  175 
Tombs,  167,  172,  174 
Worship,  169-171 
Etymologies  : 

Ahura-Mazda,  81-83 
Angro-Mainyus,  82,  83 
Baal,  133,  134 
Babylon,  144 
Dagon,  142 
Melchizedek,  133 
Pharaoh,  14 
Sennacherib,  47 
Eusebius,  Extracts  from  "Evan- 
gelical Preparation,"  on  Phoe- 
nician Religion,  130,  131 
Fire,  Discovery  of,  149 

Greeks,  Ancient: 
Deities : 

Aphrodite',  199-202 
Apollo,  188-190 
Ares,  190,  191 
Artemis,  198,199 
Athene,  197,  198 
Demeter,  202-204 
Dionysus,  204-206 
Hades,  206,  207 
Hepheestus,  192,  193 
Hera,  195-196 
Hermes,  194, 195 
Hestia,  202 
Leto,  or  Latona,  206 
Persephone,  206,  207 
Poseidon,  186-188 
Zeus,  181-186 
Lesser  Gods,  179-181 
Classification  of,  179-181 


Index. 


247 


Festivals,  208-210 

Hymns,  208 

Joyousness  of  Worship,  207- 

210 
Legend  of  the  ' '  Lay  of  the 

Net,"  193 
Nature  Worship,  176-179 
Mysteries,  211,  212 
Polytheism,  176-181 
Prayers,  208 
Sacrifices,  210,  211 
Vows,  208 
Worship,  176-179,  205,  206, 

207-212 

Hebrews,  origin  of  religion  of, 

241 
Henotheism,  46,  108 
Hittites  or  Khita,  the  God  of,  33 
Hymns: 

Egyptian,  31 

Iranian,  80,  90,  94-96 

Sanskritic  Indian,  120,  121, 
126-129 

Idzubar,  legend  of,  57 

Iranians: 

Belief  in  a  future  life,  92,  93 
Dead,  treatment  of  the,  102 

103 
Deities  : 

Ahura-Mazda,  83 
Ahuras,  the,  85 
Angro-Mainyus,  84 
Amesha-Spentas,  the,  85 
Devas,  the,  85 
Dualism,  81,  82,  93 
Elemental  worship,  98 
Fire-worship,  98,  103 
Gathas,  extracts  from,  94-96 
Early  home  of,  77-79 
Homa,  or  Haoma,  ceremony 

of,  90 
Hymns,  80,  90,  94-96 
Industi-y,  91 

Legend  of  the  Bridge  of  the 
gatherer,  92,  93 


Iranians. — continued. 

Magism  among  the,  97-102 

Morality,  94 

Parsees,  80 

Position  of   man    in  cosmic 

scheme,  90 
Prayers,  90 

Priests,  Magian,  99-102 
Purity,  91 
Religion   not  idolatrous,  86, 

101 
Resurrection,  93 
Sacrifices,  90,  98 
Veracity,  92 
Water- worship,  98 
Worship,  98-104 
Winged  circle,  86 
Zendavesta,  the,  80 
Zoroaster,  78 

Ishtar,  descent  of  into  Hades, 

72-76 

"Lay  of  the  Net,"   legend  of, 
193 

Magism,  97-102 
Melchizedek,  etymology  of,  133 
Mesa,  inscription  of,  136 
Metals,    origin   of  working   in, 

149 
Milton  quoted,  203,  204 
Moloch,  or  Molech,  146,  147 

"  CEnone,"  quotation  from  200 

Parsees,  80 

Philo  Byblius,  works  of,  131 
Philologists,  comparative,  views 
of,  1 

Phoenicians    and    Carthagin- 
ians : 
Asherahs,  157 
Babylon,  etymology  of,  144 
Baetyli,  156 
Balak  quoted,  154,  155 

Deities : 

Adonis,  or  Tammuz,  143, 
144 


248 


Index. 


Deities — continued. 
Ammon,  151 
Ashtoreth,    or     Astarte, 

139,  140 
Baal,  188  189 
Baaltis,  147 
Dagon,  141,  142 
El,  144 
Eshmun,  148 
Kabiri,  the,  149,  150 
Melkarth,  140,  141 
Moloch,  or  Molech,  146, 

147 
Osiris,  151 
Sadyk,  148 

Shamas,  orShemesh,  146 
Tanith,  or  Tanath,   151, 
152 
Etymology  of  names,  133-136 
Festivals,  158 
Licentiousness,  153 
Original   worship  monotheis- 
tic, 133-137 
Pillar  worship,  157 
Polytheism,  132,  133 
Sacrifices,  154-158 
Sun-Worship,  145 
Temples  156 

Worship,  143,  153,  154,  157, 
158 
"Pcenulus''  of  Plautus  quoted, 

137 
Polytheism : 

Ancient,  5,  6 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  35- 

37  m 
Egyptian,  6 
Greek,  176-181 
Phoenician,  132,  133 
Sanskritic  Indian,  105-109 

Prayers : 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian,  60, 

61 
Greek,  208 
Iranian,  90 
Roman,  235 
Sanskritic  Indian,  121-123 


Religion,  history  of,  2-4 
Science  of,  3,  240-244 
Origin  of,  240 
Degradation  of,   242 

Resurrection  of   the  body  not 
held  by  the  Iranians,  93 

Romans,  Ancient: 

Belief  in  a  future  life,  236 
Capitoline  Triad,  the,  217 
Classification  of  Deities,  214, 
215,  220,  227 

Collegia  :  the 

Augurs,  230,  231 
Duumviri  sacrorum,  232, 
Fetials,  231 
Pontifices,  230 
Flamines  Curiales.  229 
Fratres  Arvales,  229 
Luperci,  229 
Salii  Collini,  or  Agonales, 

229 
Salii  Palatini,  228 
Sodales  Titii,  229 
Vestal  Virgins,  229 


Deities : 


Ceres,  221 
Hercules,  224.  225 
Juno,  216,  217 
Jupiter,  215,  216 
Mars,  218,  219 
Mercurius,  225 
Minerva,  217,  218 
Neptunus,  226 
Ops,  223,  224 
Saturnus,  222,  223 
Vesta,  220,  221 
Abstract   qualities,   gods 

of  the,  227 
Country,     gods   of    the, 

227 
Grecian  Gods,  227 
Nature  gods,  227 
State,   gods  of  the,  227, 

228 
Lares,  234 


Index. 


249 


Di  majores,  214 

Expiation,    doctrine   of,  23G, 

237 
Festivals,  235 
Flamines,  the,  227,  228 
Hymns,  235 

Moral  law  recognised,  238 
Prayers,  235 

Priests,  227,  228,  233-235 
Religion,    character  of,   235- 

238 
Sacrifices,  237 
State  religion,  233 
Thankofferings,  235 
Vows,  235 
Worship,  227,  234,  235 

Sacrifices : 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian,  62 
Egyptian,  24 
Etruscan,  170,  171 
Grecian,  210,  211 
Phoenician  and  Carthaginian, 

154-158 
Roman,  237 
Sanskritic  Indian,  123-125 

Sanskritic  Indians  : 

Belief  in  a  future  life,  125-128 
Deities : 

Agni,  112-114 

Dyaus,  117,  118 

Indra,  110,  111 

Mitra,  111,  112 

Nature  gods,  114 

Prithivi,  117,  118 

Soma,  118 

Surya,  116,  117 

Ushas,  115 

Varuna,  110 

Vayu,  117 

Lesser  gods,  118 
Fire  -worship,  112-114 
Henotheism,  or  Kathenothe- 

ism,  108 
Hymns,  120,  126-129 
Libations,  123,  124 


Mantras,  120 

Offerings,  123,  124 

Polytheism,  105-109 

Prayers,    121-123 

Priests,  120 

Sacrifices,  123-125 

Soma  plant,  119 

Vedic  poems,   extracts  from, 

127-129 
Worship,  119-125 

Superstitions : 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian,  64 
Etruscan,  160,  174,  175 

Temples : 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian,  60 
Egyptian,   23 

Phoenician  and  Carthaginian, 
156 

Teraphim,  worship  of,  243 

Tombs : 

Egyptian,  28 
Etruscan,  107,  171-173 
Trinity,  supposed  Egyptian  doc- 
trine of  the,  33 

War  in  heaven,  legend  of,  64,  65 
Wilkinson's  list  of  Egyptian  dei- 
ties, 9  n. 

Worship : 

Assyrian     and     Babylonian, 

60-62 
Egyptian,  22-24 
Etruscan,  169-171 
Grecian,   176-179,  205,  206, 

208-212 
Iranian,  98-104 
Phoenician  and  Carthaginian, 

143,  153,  157,  158 
Roman,  227,  234-235 
Sanskritic  Indian,  119-125 

Zendavesta,  the,  80,  81 
Zoroaster,  78,  79 


The  Religions  of  China. 

CONFUCIANISM  AND  TAOISM   DESCRIBED  AND  COM- 
PARED  WITH  CHRISTIANITY. 

By     JAMES      LEGGE, 

Professor  of  the  Chinese  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 


One    volume,   12mo,        -         -        $1.50. 


Professor  Legge's  work  is  by  far  the  most  simple  and  easily 
comprehended  exposition  of  Chinese  religions  that  exists,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  freedom  from  a  polemic  bias,  and  for  the 
easy,  confident  touch  of  a  man  whose  mind  is  saturated  with 
his  subject  and  at  home  in  every  branch  of  it. 


"The  entire  volume  deserves  a  wide  and  attentive  reading." — Chicago  Tribune. 

"  Prof.  Legge  is.  perhaps,  the  highest  authority  on  all  matters  connected  with  a 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  literature  and  philosophy." — Richmond  Ce?itral  Presbjr* 
terian. 

"  Prof.  Legge's  work  is  a  remarkably  instructive  and  critical  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese." — St.  Louis  Central  Christian  Advocate. 

"As  the  work  of  perhaps  the  first  of  scholars  in  all  that  pertains  to  China,  we  heartily 
commend  this  book." — Buffalo  Courier. 

"For  the  scholar  and  the  minister  who  desire  information  about  the  religions  of  the 
largest  nation  on  earth,  and  who  are  likely  to  play  an  important  part  hereafter  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  it  is  an  important  publication." — Richmond  Southern  Churchman. 

"  In  this  volume  Prof.  Legge  presents  the  results  of  careful  study,  with  a  clearness  of 
style  and  method  which  entitles  him  to  the  gratitude  of  readers  who  are  interested  in  the 
study  of  comparative  religions." — Boston  Daily  Journal. 

"  Nowhere  else  Is  so  clear  a  detail  of  the  distinctive  features  and  characteristics  of 
the  Chinese  religions  given,  and  nowhere  else  are  the  contrasts  and  similarities  between 
them  and  the  Christian  religion  brought  within  a  more  compact  compass." — 

Albany  Journal. 

"Prof.  Legge's  philological  discussions  are  extremely  interesting,  and  his  reasoning 
close  and  fascinating.  Incidentally  he  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  social  and  fannlv  re- 
lations of  the  Chinese,  which  are  involved  in  and  governed  by  the  duties  and  obligations 
imposed  by  religion." — Waterbury  American. 


***  For    sale  by    all   booksellers,  or    sent,   post-paid,  upon    receipt    of 
frice,  by 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


The  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,  as  Illustrated  by 

THE  RELIGION  OF 

ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

By  P.   LE    PAGE    RENOUF. 

(The  Hibbert  Lectures  for  i8jg.J 


One  volume,   12mo,       ----___        $l.SO 

M.  Le  Page  Renouf's  great  reputation  as  an  Egyptologist  led  to  his 
selection  to  deliver  the  second  course  of  the  already  celebrated  Hibbert 
series.  His  lectures  are  the  fit  companions  of  Professor  Muller's,  both  in 
learning  and  in  interest.  The  glimpses  laboriously  gained  by  the  aid  of 
long  undeciphered  hieroglyphics  into  one  of  the  most  mystical  and  profound 
of  all  the  ancient  beliefs,  have  always  had  a  special  fascination  ;  and  the 
time  has  now  come  when  it  is  possible  to  join  their  results  into  a  fairly 
complete  picture.  Done  as  this  is  by  M.  Renouf,  with  a  certain  French 
vividness  and  clearness,  it  has  a  very  unusual,  and,  indeed,  unique  interest. 


CRITICAL    NOTICES. 

"  The  narrative  is  so  well  put  together,  the  chain  of  reasoning  and 
inference  so  obvious,  and  the  illustration  so  apt,  that  the  general  reader 
can  go  through  it  with  unabated  interest." — Hartford  Post. 

"  No  one  can  rise  from  reading  this  book,  in  which,  by  the  way,  the 
author  is  careful  about  drawing  his  conclusions,  without  having  increased 
respect  for  the  religion  of  ancient  Egypt,  and  hardly  less  than  admiration 
for  its  ethical  system." — The  Churchman. 

"  These  lectures  are  invaluable  to  students  of  Egyptology,  and  as  the 
religion  of  ancient  Egypt  stands  alone  and  unconnected  with  other  religions, 
except  those  which  have  been  modified  by  it,  itself  being  apparently  original 
and  underived,  they  should  be  highly  interesting  to  all  students  of  religious 
history.  .  .  .  It  is  impossible  in  a  brief  notice  to  convey  an  adequate 
idea  of  Professor  Renouf  s  admirable  lectures."— JV.  Y.  World. 

"The  present  work  forms  a  remarkably  intelligent  and  acutely  critical 
contribution  to  the  history  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  religion,  as  illustrated 
by  the  religion  of  ancient  Egypt.  As  a  specialist,  Professor  Renouf  is  able 
to  bring  forth  much  information  not  ordinarily  accessible  to  the  general 
reader,  and  this  he  does  in  such  a  carefully  digested  form  as  to  make  the 
work  entertaining  and  instructive  in  the  highest  degree." — Boston  Courier. 

***  For    sale    by    all   booksellers,    or  sent,    post-paid,  zipon    receipt   of 
price,   by 

CHARLES   SCRlBNER'S  SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


Religion  and  Chemistry. 

By   Prof.   JOSIAH    P.    COOKE, 

OF   HARVARD    UNIVERSITY. 
A    New     Edition,     with    Additions. 


One  Volume,  12mo,     .    .    .    .    .     $1,50. 

The  facts  of  astronomy,  as  they  have  been  revealed  by  a  long  line  of 
splendid  discoveries,  have  already  been  applied  many  times  to  the  argu- 
ment of  design  in  nature ;  Professor  Cooke  here  applies  to  it  the  hardly 
less  wonderful  facts  of  chemistry. 


'•The  work  has  stood  the  test  of  time,  and  is  now  regarded  by  the  best  thinkers  as  a 
positive  contribution  to  the  literature  of  scientific-religious  thought." — Boston  Traveller. 

"  In  these  days  of  scientific  scepticism  a  book  upon  a  department  of  science,  which  is 
not  only  theistic  but  positively  Christian,  is  a  real  luxury." — New  York  Christian  In- 
telligencer. 

"  The  discussions  are  in  popular  rather  than  in  technical  language,  and  they  are  rich 
in  scientific  information  ;  the  arguments  are  forcible,  and  the  whole  work  one  that  may  be 
read  with  deep  interest." — New  Englander. 

"  His  styleis  a  model  of  clearness  and  directness,  and,  at  the  same  time,  has  a  certain 
warmth  and  beauty,  which  occasionally  rises  into  eloquence  ;  and  there  are  passages  in 
the  volume  which  are  more  truly  poetical  than  the  majority  of  poems." — Portland  Press. 

"His  book  is  eminently  fair  and  candid,  a  fine  example  of  the  '  sweet  reasonable- 
ness' so  much  commended  nowadays,  and  is  well  fitted  alike  to  nourish  the  faith  of  a  be- 
liever and  to  give  an  unbeliever  reason  to  consider  and  change  his  views." — New  York 
Observer. 

"Prof.  Cooke's  style  is  easy  and  popular,  as  well  as  clear  and  accurate.  He  does 
not  presuppose  a  thorough  knowledge  of  chemistry  in  the  reader,  but  has  adapted  his 
book  for  general  reading.  A  copy  ought  to  be  put  in  the  hands  of  every  young  man  of 
the  country." — Richmond  Religious  Herald. 

"  '  Religion  and  Chemistry'  presents  the  happiest  combination  of  religion,  philosophy, 
and  natural  science  in  a  harmonious  trinity  that  we  have  seen.  No  thinking  being  can 
read  it  without  deriving  from  it  intellectual  improvement,  moral  comfort,  and  the  pleasure 
that  is  always  afforded  from  a  good  literary  production." — Philadelphia  Bulletin. 

"Viewed  as  a  scientific  book  alone,  on  its  special  subject,  we  know  of  none  that  can 
come  in  competition  with  '  Religion  and  Chemistry,'  while  the  polished  a"d  elegant  style 
of  the  author,  and  his  earnest  conviction,  everywhere  apparent,  that  the  truths  he  explains 
owe  their  chief  value  to  the  glimpses  they  afford  us  of  the  Divine  economy  of  creation,  im- 
part to  it  a  peculiar  and  signal  value." — New  York  Times. 


*#*  For  sale    by  all   booksellers,    or  sent,   post-paid,    upon    receipt  of 
price,  by 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


The  Conflicts  of  the  ^4ge. 


One  Vol.,  8vo,       -      Paper,  50  Cts.  ;  Cloth,  75  Cts. 


The  four   articles   which   make   up  this  little   volume  are  : 

(1)  An  Advertisement  for  a  New  Religion.    By  an  Evolutionist. 

(2)  The  Confession  of  an  Agnostic.     By   an   Agnostic. 

(3)  What  Morality  have  we  left?     By  a  New-Light  Moralist. 

(4)  Review    of  the    Fight.       By   a   Yankee   Farmer. 

The  secret  of  its  authorship  has  not   yet   transpired,  and  the  reviewers 
Beem  badly  puzzled  in  their  attempts  to  solve  the  mystery. 


CRITICAL    NOTICES. 

"  Nowhere  can  an  ordinary  reader  see  in  a  more  simple  and  pleasing  form  the 
absurdities  which  lie  in  the  modern  speculations  about  truth  and  duty.  We  have  no  key 
to  the  authorship,  but  the  writer  evidently  holds  a  practiced  pen,  and  knows  how  to  give 
that  air  of  persiflage  in  treating  of  serious  subjects  which  sometimes  is  more  effective 
than  the  most  cogent  dialectic."' — Christian  Intelligencer. 

"It  is  the  keenest,  best  sustained  exposure  of  the  weaknesses  inherent  in  certain 
schools  of  modern  thought,  which  we  have  yet  come  across,  and  is  couched  in  a  vein  of 
fine  satire,  making  it  exceedingly  readable.  For  an  insight  into  the  systems  it  touches 
upon,  and  for  its  suggestions  of  methods  of  meeting  them,  it  is  capable  of  being  a  great 
help  to  the  clergy.  It  is  a  new  departure  in  apologetics,  quite  in  the  spirit  of  the  time." — 
The  Living  Church. 

"The  writer  has  chosen  to  appear  anonymously;  but  he  holds  a  pen  keen  as  a 
Damascus  blade.  Indeed,  there  are  few  men  living  capable  of  writing  these  papers, 
and  of  dissecting  so  thoroughly  the  popular  conceits  and  shams  of  the  day.  It  is  done, 
too,  with  a  coolness,  self-possession,  and  sang-froid,  that  are  inimitable,  however  un- 
comfortable it  may  seem  to  the  writhing  victims." — The  Guardian. 

"  These  four  papers  are  unqualifiedly  good.  They  show  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  whole  range  of  philosophic  thought  in  its  modern  phases  of  development,  even 
down  to  the  latest  involutions  and  convolutions  of  the  Evolutionists,  the  sage  unknow- 
ableness  of  the  Agnostic,  and  the  New  Light  novelty  of  Ethics  without  a  conscience."  — 
Lutheran  Church  Review. 

"  These  papers  are  as  able  as  they  are  readable,  and  are  not  offensive  in  their  spirit, 
beyond  the  necessary  offensiveness  of  belief  to  the  believing  mind."— A7".  V.  Christian 
Advocate. 

"The  discussion  is  sprightly,  incisive,  and  witty;  and  whoever  begins  to  read  it 
will  be  likely  to  read  it  through." — New  Englandcr. 


***  For    sale    by    all    booksellers,    or    sent,     postpaid,    u/>ott     receipt     of 
price,   by 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  74s  Broadway,  New  York. 


The 


Conflict  of  Christianity 

WITH    HEATHENISM. 

By  DR.    GERHARD     UHLHORN, 

TRA  NSLA  TED     B  V 
PROF.  EGBERT    C.  SMYTH    and    REV.  C.  J.  H.  ROPES. 


One    Volume,    Crown    8vo,   $2.50. 

This  volume  describes  with  extraordinary  vividness  and  spirit  the 
religious  and  moral  condition  of  the  Pagan  world,  the  rise  and  spread 
of  Christianity,  its  conflict  with  heathenism,  and  its  final  victory.  There 
is  no  work  that  portrays  the  heroic  age  of  the  ancient  church  with  equal 
spirit,  elegance,  and  incisive  power.  The  author  has  made  thorough  and 
independent  study  both  of  the  early  Christian  literature  and  also  of  the 
contemporary  records  of  classic  heathenism. 


CRITICAL     NOTICES. 

"It  is  easy  to  see  why  this  volume  is  so  highly  esteemed.  It  is 
systematic,  thorough,  and  concise.  But  its  power  is  in  the  wide  mental 
vision  and  well-balanced  imagination  of  the  author,  which  enable  him  to 
reconstruct  the  scenes  of  ancient  history.  An  exceptional  clearness  and 
force  mark  his  style." — Boston  Advertiser. 

"  One  might  read  many  books  without  obtaining  more  than  a  fraction 
of  the  profitable  information  here  conveyed  ;  and  he  might  search  a  long 
time  before  finding  one  which  would  so  thoroughly  fix  his  attention  and 
command  his  interest." — Phil.  S.  S.    Times. 

"Dr.  Uhlhorn  has  described  the  great  conflict  with  the  power  of  a 
master.  His  style  is  strong  and  attractive,  his  descriptions  vivid  and 
graphic,  his  illustrations  highly  colored,  and  his  presentation  of  the  subject 
earnest  and  effective."— Providence  Journal. 

"  The  work  is  marked  for  its  broad  humanitarian  views,  its  learning, 
and  the  wide  discretion  in  selecting  from  the  great  field  the  points  of 
deepest  interest."—  Chicago  Inter-Ocean. 

"This  is  one  of  those  clear,  strong,  thorough-going  books  which  are 
a  scholar's  delight."— Hartford  Religious  Herald. 


*#*  For  sale  by  all  booksellers,    or  sent  post-paid   upon    receipt   of 
frice,    by 

CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS, 

Nos.  743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  NATIONS 

By    Professor    GEORGE    RAWLINSON,    M.A. 


One   Volume,  12mo,     With  maps,    .       .       .       $1.00. 

The  first  part  of  this  book,  Early  Civilizations,  discusses  the  antiquity 
of  civilization  in  Egypt  and  the  other  early  nations  of  the  East.  The 
second  part,  Ethnic  Affinities  in  the  Ancient  World,  is  an  examination  of 
the  ethnology  of  Genesis,  showing  its  accordance  with  the  latest  results  of 
modern  ethnographical  science. 


"An  attractive  volume,  which  is  well  worthy  of  the  careful  consideration  of  every 
reader." — Observer. 

"A  work  of  genuine  scholarly  excellent,  and  a  useful  offset  to  a  great  deal  of  the 
superficial  current  literature  on  such  subjects." — Congregationalist . 

"  Dr.  Rawlinson  brings  to  this  discussion  long  and  patient  research,  a  vast  knowledge 
and  intimate  acquaintance  with  what  has  been  written  on  both  sides  of  the  question."— 

Brooklyn  Union- A  rgus. 


THE  DAWN  OF  HISTORY. 

AN   INTRODUCTION   TO    PRE-HISTORIC   STUDY. 
Edited    by    C.    F.    KEARY,    M.  A., 

OF   THE   BRITISH    MUSEUM. 


One   Volume,   12mo.,         -  -  -  $1.2  5. 

This  work  treats  successively  of  the  earliest  traces  of  man  in  the 
remains  discovered  in  caves  or  elsewhere  in  different  parts  of  Europe  ;  of 
language,  its  growth,  and  the  story  it  tells  of  the  pre-historic  users  of  it ; 
of  the  races  of  mankind,  early  social  life,  the  religions,  mythologies,  and 
folk-tales  of  mankind,  and  of  the  history  of  writing.  A  list  of  authorities 
is  appended,  and  an  index  has  been  prepared  specially  for  this  edition. 


"The  book  maybe  heartily  recommended  as  probably  the  most  satisfactory  summary 
of  the  subject  that  there  is."— Nation. 

"  A  fascinating  manual,  without  a  vestige  of  the  dullness  usually  charged  against 
scientific  works.  ...  In  its  way,  the  work  is  a  model  of  what  a  popular  scientific 
work  should  be  ;  it  is  readable,  it  is  easily  understood,  and  its  style  is  simple,  yet  dig- 
nified, avoiding  equally  the  affectation  of  the  nursery  and  of  the  laboratory." — 

Boston  Sat.  Eve.  Gazette. 

*#*  For  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  sent,  post-paid,  upon  receipt  of 
price,  by 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS,  Publishers, 

743  and  745  Broadway,  New  York. 


h 


Date  Due 


^^^H I 

■ 


h 


mm:-'. 


mm  m 


—  ggnH 

HUHSH 

H 


M 


^ 


